Soft wooded
No secondary (woody) tissue being formed. The texture is fleshy and is soft, easy to cut.
Clumping
A plant that when multiplies forms a clump.This clump forming succulent has upright fleshy 4 angled stems that are up to 30 mm (1 in) thick with teeth along the margins. The large foul smelling star-shaped flowers are yellowish with red centres and appear in summer and are a feature of the plant.
Stapelia gigantea N.E.Br. is naturally found in Africa from Zambia to Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa. It grows on exposed dry stony hill sides and dry rocky flats in woodlands and amongst rock outcrops, appearing from sea level to an altitude of 1,200 m (3,937 ft). It prefers a very well drained, poor gritty light sand-stony to light loamy soil that is dry to moist with a pH range from 6.5 to 7.5. It grows in an open hot sunny position and is drought tolerant but frost tender, with a preferred minimum winter temperature of 5ºC (41ºF).
The Carrion Flower is grown for its large fleshy flowers and its low spreading habit. It is planted in small or arid gardens as a compact ground cover or as a specimen in an exposed rockery. It is also cultivated in pots and tubs and in cool climates it is used as a house plant or glasshouse specimen. It is also planted along front garden borders or beside pathways and in its native region it is used for medicinal purposes. It establishes from division in 1 to 2 years and can spread indefinitely and watering should be reduced during the winter dormant period. It has a low water requirement once established (Scale: 1-drop from 3), preferring dry soils and care should be taken as it rots in wet conditions.
I.D. 1311
UK hardiness zone H1a
Climate zones 8, 9, 12-24
USDA Zone 9-11
Stapelia (sta-PEL-ee-ah) gigantea (jy-gan-tee-ah)
Etymology
Genus: - Stapelia – named after the Dutch physician Johannes Bodaeus van Stapel (1602-1636)
Species: Latin – gigantean – meaning (large or tall) referring to the flowers
Common names; Carrion Flower, Giant Starfish Flower, Giant Toad Plant, Zulu Giant, Giant Stapelia
South-west Africa
Asclepiadaceae (ass-kle-pee-ad-AY-see-ee)
This large family has many widely used ornamental plants.
Distribution
The Asclepiads are normally found in the tropics and sub-tropics with some genera in temperate climates around the world.
Diagnostic Features
These plants may be perennial herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers and may be in a succulent form or have milky sap.
The leaves normally have stipules and are arranges opposite or in whorls with a simple shape, may be vestigial.
The regular symmetrical bisexual flowers are borne on cymes, raceme or umbel-like inflorescence. The flowers consist of five semi-fused sepals and five fused petals with five stamens with short filaments that may be fused to the gynoecium, simular to an orchid flower.
The corolla or stamens may have appendages of different types that constitute a single or double corona.
Stamens have two pollen chambers that form a waxy pollinium these are joined by a filamentous glandular connection and the pollinates remove pollen on mass rather than singular.
The gynoecium may be superior or inferior and is composed of two capels that are held together by the style or a five lobed stigma. Each carpel contains rows of ovules on a single placenta.
The fruit forms into a pair of follicles, which opens longitudinally and has flattish seeds with silk hairs to assist in wind dispersal. The embryo straight and has endosperm.
Note:
Many of these ornamental plants are grown in gardens or containers for their showy flowers. Some Australian species are eaten or the sap was used to decorate in body art.
Plants are classed as succulents as they resemble each other. They have fleshy leaves and stems, which can store water. There are three families, Cactaceae, Crassulaceae and Mesembryanthemaceae in which all the species are succulents.
Most of the succulents are indigenous to semi-arid environments with long dry periods followed by a short wet period. The plants swell absorbing water during these wet periods and reduce evaporation by having a waxy cover over the leaves or the leaves are crowded together in a rosette. Hairs and spines (modified leaves) also reduce the evaporation of water and most succulents form rounded shapes to reduce the surface area of the plant.
The size of the plant and flowering period is difficult to predict with succulents as the environmental factors such as weather and light variations control the flowering period. Soil type and available moisture influence the growth.
This plant tolerates between USDA zones 9a to 11a and grows to 0.3 m (1 ft)
Fahrenheit 20º to 45º F
These temperatures represent the lowest average.
Celsius -6.6º to 7.2º C
Attention
This plant was last revised on the 15/05/2019
All photographs and data are covered by copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, reference or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part including images and text may be reproduced by any means without written permission. The information presented in the map is only indicative and may contain errors and omissions. All inquiries should be addressed to sales@plantfile.com attention Peter Kirkland.
Simple
The leaf that is not divided.
Acicular
Pointed, needle like and commonly terete.
Entire
A leaf margin with no irregularities (smooth).
Stellate
When the petals radiate from a common centre forming a star-shape.
Solitary
When a flower that arises singly from within the axis of a leaf or terminally.| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun |
| Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
The short-lived fleshy stellate flowers are pail yellow with transverse crimson lines and are covered in purplish hairs. The centre and underside is purplish-red and the petals are recurved. They appear solitary or in-groups of 5 at the base of the stems during summer.
Follicle
A capsular fruit that splits open down one side only and normally contains one seeds. "| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun |
| Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
The fruit consists of 2-small pubescent follicles that split longitudinally and contain numerous minute flattened seeds that are hairy to aid in wind dispersal. The seeds are viable but the plant may be reproduced vegetatively.
The Carrion Flower is grown for its large fleshy flowers and its low spreading habit. It is planted in small or arid gardens as a compact ground cover or as a specimen in an exposed rockery. It is also cultivated in pots and tubs and in cool climates it is used as a house plant or glasshouse specimen. It is also planted along front garden borders or beside pathways and in its native region it is used for medicinal purposes. It establishes from division in 1 to 2 years and can spread indefinitely and watering should be reduced during the winter dormant period.
Note:
Watering
As a container plant water regularly during summer but allow the surface to dry before re-watering and reduce watering during winter.
Temperature
During winter the plant prefers a temperature of 12.7º C ( 55º F) but will tolerate 5ºC (41ºF).
Re-pot
The plant may be re-potted at any time of the year but prefers spring.
Sow fresh seeds during spring and maintain a temperature of 18º to 21º C (64º to 75º F). Take stem cuttings during summer placed in a very well drained media. Divide the clump during spring.
Crown division
The crown is the part of the plant at the surface of the soil where new shoots arise. With lateral shoots the crown of some plants requires division when they become crowded.
Herbaceous perennials and multi-branched woody shrubs may develop large crowns that need dividing.
It is a simple method of propagation that is used by amateurs and professionals for a small increase in plants.
Plants that flower during spring to summer are divided during autumn and if flowering in summer to autumn they are divided in spring. The crown is dug up then cut with a knife in to sections, which has a shoot and abundant roots then planted or potted up. The crown may also be divided in some species by using a shovel to cut and dig sections out.
Propagation by seed (General)
Germination
In order for a seed to germinate it must fulfil three conditions.
1. The embryo must be alive (a viable seed).
2. The seed must have no dormancy-inducing physiological, physical or chemical barrier to germination; also the seed must be nondormant.
3. The seed must have the appropriate environmental requirements, water, temperature and oxygen.
The interaction between these requirements and dormancy is complex and may lead to different environmental requirements that avoid the dormancy of a seed.
Sowing seeds in containers
There are two general methods for germinating seeds.
Sow seeds in a flat or germinating bed, through which seedlings are pricked-out then, transplanted into another flat with wider spacing or directly to an individual pot.
2. Sowing seeds by placing them in to flats with the appropriate spacing or into individual pots.
This method is normally carried out with medium to large seeds such as woody plants and plants that are difficult to transplant.
Seedling production normally occurs in a greenhouse / glasshouse, cold frames and on hot beds.
Method of seed sowing
Fine seed is sown in pots or flats that are no deeper than 70 to 80 mm (3 1/8 in). using a sterilised well-drained media (soil). Fill the container to 20 mm (¾ in) from the top and sprinkle sieved peat to 3 mm (1/8 in) depth. Press the media down level and firm with a piece of timber and then thoroughly moisten.
Mix the fine seed with washed sand and then sow thinly on the surface. These may be lightly covered with sand.
Larger seeds may be covered with media or a hole is dibbled and the seed is placed in the media.
Watering methods
For watering you may either mist the containers from above or place the container in tepid water and allow the water to raise through the pot to the surface of the media, then drain away and do not fill to the top of the container.
Place a piece of glass over the pot and store in a protected warm environment (glasshouse).
Seeds germinate best in darkness so shade the containers if in direct sunlight.
After the seedlings have sprouted remove the glass and ease the seedlings into direct light.
When the seedlings are large enough prick them out and transplant into larger containers then place them in a shade house to harden off.
Many seeds have different methods of seed preparation for germination such as nicking or cutting the seed coat to allow water penetration, also placing seeds in hot water and allowing it to cool off.
This is particularly important as it is softening the seed coat.
Asexual propagation (Cuttings general)
Propagation from cuttings is possible because every cell of a plant containers the genetic information to create an entire plant.
1. Reproduction occurs through the formation of adventitious roots and shoots.
2. The uniting of vegetative parts with budding and grafting.
3. Taking stem cuttings and layering is possible due to the development of adventitious roots
4. Root cuttings can form new shoots then it is possible to join roots and shoots to form a new plant.
5. A new plant may be formed from a single cell in an aseptic culture system, (cloning).
It is important to propagate vegetatively as this form of cloning retains the unique characteristics of the cultivars or where particular aspects of a plant may be lost if propagated by seed.
Equipment required for taking cuttings
1. A sharp knife that is not too large or a razor mounted in a handle.
2. Good pair of sharp secateurs that is clean.
3. A dibbler to make a hole in the media and allow the cutting to be placed in.
4. Propagation structures that are either a timber frame with glass or polyethylene cover or a glasshouse.
The object of the structure is to create an environment where the temperature and humidity can be controlled. This can be achieved with a simple cover over a pot with a wire frame and plastic.
This stops the draughts and maintains humidity.
5. A hotbed is a useful item as many plants root more quickly if the media is slightly warmer.
Bottom heat is obtained from thermostatically controlled heating cables that are running under the media.
6. Misting systems are of great benefit to cuttings as the regulated fogging with water inhibits the cuttings from drying out and as a result the cuttings may be grown in full sun.
This results in faster root development that is less subject to diseases by fungi and bacteria.
7. Rooting mediums
The rooting medium must be well drained, sand may be used as long as it is thoroughly washed and leached of all salts. It is very well drained and it is excellent for cutting that root up quickly. Equal parts of sand and peat moss have good results for cuttings, which are left for a period of time to allow the roots to form.
Vermiculite and perlite are also used as a well-drained rooting media but has the same disadvantage as sand having no nutrients. The cuttings must be potted up as soon as the roots developed, or a light application of liquid fertiliser can be applied.
Types of cuttings
Stem cuttings
These are the main types of cuttings.
1. Softwood cuttings
These cuttings are taken from young growth on side shoots and tip growth.
2. Semi hardwood cuttings
These cuttings are taken from wood that is firmer and semi ripe usually during mid summer.
3. Hardwood cuttings
These cuttings are taken from mature wood normally towards the end of the season.
4. Root cuttings
Cut sections of roots to obtain new plants during late winter to early spring.
5. Leaf cuttings
Cut the leaf blade in order to obtain new plants during the growing period of the plant.
Cutting preparation
Hardwood cuttings
When taking hardwood cuttings remove the leaves and in semi hardwood reduce the number of leaves by half. Cut the wood straight across just below a node or joint. Hardwood cuttings are normally between 100 to 760 mm (30 in) long and may have either a heel of the older wood attached to the base, or a short section of the older wood at the base. These cuttings are prepared during the dormant season from late autumn to early spring and are made up from previous season's growth.
This type of cutting is used for woody deciduous plants such as Crepe Myrtle, Rose rootstocks and some fruit trees.
The cuttings should be healthy wood with ample supply of stored food as to nourish developing roots, shoots and placed in the rooting media with the aid of a dibbler stick.
Softwood cuttings
The cuttings for softwood should be 60 to 130 mm (5 1/8 in) long and be of material with enough substance as to not deteriorate before the new roots appear. Cut below a node and retain the leaves on the upper portion. Place in a well-drained media and maintain a high humidity.
Soaking the cuttings and leaving them standing in water for long periods is undesirable.
Herbaceous cuttings
These cuttings are taken from succulent plants such as Geraniums and Coleus. The cutting should be 70 to 130 mm (5 1/8 in) long with leaves retained on the upper end. As in softwood cuttings these require an environment of high humidity. Some fleshy cuttings ooze sap and may require a drying period for a few hours before being placed in the rooting media.
Leaf cutting
In these cuttings a leaf blade and petiole or part off is used to raise a new plant. The original leaf doses not become a part of the new plant as roots and shoots appear from the base of the leaf. In some cases roots appear from the severed veins.
Leaf-Bud cuttings
These cuttings incorporate a leaf, petiole and a small piece of the stem. These cuttings are an advantage where the plant uses the axillary bud at the base of the petiole for new shoot growth and maximises available propagation material, as each node will produce a new plant.
As in softwood cuttings these require an environment with high humidity and warmth.
Root cuttings
These cuttings are best taken from younger plants during late winter to early spring prior the new season's growth unless the dormant period is during summer.
Trim the roots as they are dug up, to maintain polarity cut strength at the crown end and a slanted cut at the distal end (away from the crown).
Root cuttings of small plants are placed in flats in lengths of 20 to 50 mm (2 in) and laying horizontally on the surface of the soil. These may be lightly covered with sieved sand or media, watered and then placing a piece of glass or polyethylene over the container till roots / shoots appear.
Fleshy root cuttings
These cuttings should be 50 to 75 mm (5 1/8 in) long and placed vertically in a well-drained sand media.
Keep the polarity correct and when the roots develop transplant the cuttings into a separate container.
Large root cuttings
These cuttings are 50 to 150 mm (6 in) long are tied up in bundles and placed in boxes of damp sand, sawdust or peat for about three weeks at a temperature of 4.5º C. When taken out they should be planted in a prepared bed 50 to 80 mm (3 1/8 in) apart with the tops of the cuttings level with or just below the soil level.
PEST
NAME
Mealybugs
Various Mealybug Species
ORDER
Hemiptera
FAMILY
Pseudococcidae
Description of the Pest
Adult females are 3-5mm long, flattened oval-shaped white insects, which secrete a white, mealy wax that forms a row of hair-like filaments of fairly uniform length around the edge of the body; the hind end bears one or two pairs of filaments that are longer than the others. They are mobile but slow-moving. The seldom-seen adult males are tiny winged insects with a pair of long waxy tail filaments. Early stage nymphs are tiny, pink and mobile; later stages resemble adult females.
There are many types of mealybugs including;
· Longtailed Mealybugs (Pseudococcus longispinus) generally have tail filaments that are longer than there body. If squashed yellow body fluid is revealed and the eggs are laid under the body and normally hatch immediately.
· Citrus Mealybug (Planococcus citri). This insect has tail filaments that are less than 1/3 the length of its body. It produces yellow orange body fluid and lays eggs in a cottony mass.
· Citrophilous Mealybug ( Pseudococcus calceolariae). This insect has tail filaments that are about 1/3 the length of its body. It produces dark red body fluid and the eggs are laid in a cottony sac.
· Root Mealybug (Rhizeocus falcifer). This insect is not normally seen but produces a open white mass as it feeds on the outer or terminal roots, normally container plants, particularly cacti species. The eggs are laid in the waxy mass and adults may dispersed by ants.
· Hibiscus Mealybug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus)
· Tuber Mealybug (Pseudococcus affinis)
The Mealybugs (Pseudococcus adonidum) and (Planococcus citri) are a major pest of cacti species, sucking sap and turning the infected area yellow. These pests are also found on Strelitzia, Camellia and Yucca species.
Appearance and Distribution of the Pest
Mealy bugs are found worldwide. The above ground species are found in sheltered areas such as under a leaf or in leaf bases. They are also found where two fruits or leaves touch and are not readily noticeable.
The below ground species are only found when a plant is re-potted or the infected plant wilts and dies. Mealybugs are distributed several ways including slowly walking to a new host or transferred on clothing, contaminated plants or strong wind and on visiting insects. They are also farmed by ants which in a nursery situation infest pots by tunnelling and carrying mealybugs to the roots.
Attending Ants
Life Cycle
These insects have a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.
Up to 200 young are produced in 2-3 weeks; eggs may hatch as they are being laid. The life cycle includes eggs, nymphs (3 to 4 stages) to adult takes 6 weeks, in warmer months; several generations appear throughout the year.
Period of Activity
Active all year, particularly in spring and autumn. Warm, humid conditions are preferred and the insect overwinter outdoors as eggs. These may be found on surrounding weeds. In Citrus species many longtailed mealybugs overwinter as juveniles, maturing during spring. In a Glasshouse conditions mealybugs are active through the year.
Damage Caused
Adults and nymphs suck sap, congregating in sheltered parts of the plants; some species feed undetected on roots. Early infestations may go unnoticed until the plant begins to wilt. The insect also produces honeydew, which gives rise to sooty mould.
Clivia miniata
Susceptible Plants
Mealybugs are found on a wide variety of trees and shrubs. They are also destructive to many ornamentals; including indoor plants (especially African violets and ferns), and are a major greenhouse pest.
Cactus species
Many species of mealybug are common pest of cactus and succulents. The small, grey to light brown mealy bugs are difficult to see amongst the spines. Nesting females appear as the small balls of white fluff on cactus spines or around the base and under the rim of the pots. The female will produce eggs or living nymphs and the insect will produce honeydew that attracts ants. Ants should be discouraged as they farm mealy bugs, moving them from one place to another in a cactus collection.
Cactus is also attacked by the root mealybugs that infest the roots of plants and their damage allows fungal and bacterial infections to enter the plant tissue. They can be identified by white fluffy deposits in the soil or underneath a pot and appeared as tiny pinkish brown wood lice up to 3 mm long.
Catalpa species are susceptible to the mealybug (Pseudococcus comstocki) which is a wax covered mealybug that causes distorted growth of the branches and branchlets.
Fern species are commonly attacked by mealy bugs and can be recognised by small white, waxy secretions as it feeds in the crevices at vein junctions or on the exposed rhizome.
Hedera and Crassula species are susceptible to three species of mealybugs including Citrus Mealybug (Planococcus citri) and not normally requiring control.
Laburnum anagyroides is infested with the Grape Mealybug (Pseudococcus maritimus) infesting the branches and twigs.
Plumeria acutifolia becomes infested with mealybugs on the new growth but normally control is not required.
Psidium species are attacked by the Longtailed Mealybugs (Pseudococcus longispinus).
Sequoia species are attacked by three species of Mealybugs including (Planococcus citri).
Thymus species are attacked by the Root Mealybug (Rhizeocus falcifer).
Thuja species Cupressus macrocarpa and Araucaria heterophylla are can be infested with the mealybugs (Pseudococcus ryani).
Turf Grass may be infested with mealybugs causing severs damage and often go undetected and build up large colonies quickly. The turf forms brown dry patches and looks simular to Dollar Spot the infestation may also occur around core holes and can be discouraged by generous watering. Agrostis palustris (Bent) and Cynodon species (Couch) are commonly attacked.
Yucca species are attacked by the mealybug (Planococcus citri).
Cultural Control
Small plants may be sprayed with a soapy water solution or sponged down preferably during the evening. Heavily infected areas should be pruned and destroyed or the whole plant removed. Infested pot-plants should be discarded and thoroughly disinfect pots before recycling). Maintain vigour by watering to replace sap loss, this helps infected plants to recover.
As a preventative measure for root mealybugs grind up mothballs and add them to the potting mix to discourage infestations. Care should be taken as the chemicals in mothballs can damage plastic pots (use clay pots) and in some countries such as the UK. mothballs must be used as directed on the label.
Biological Control
Lacewing and ladybeetle larvae (Cryptolaemus montrouzeri) control small infestations. This predator insect requires temperatures of at least 21° C. (70°F) and in small infestations it is difficult to maintain a balance between predator and prey.
Ladybird beetle larvae eats Mealybugs Ladybird beetle up to 4 mm long
Chemical Control
Spray with white oil may have an effect on the population or spray Omethoate. Contact insecticides are usually ineffective because of the insect's protective waxy coating.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
DISEASE
NAME
Fungi (General)
Various Fungal species
Description
A fungus is a plant that lacks chlorophyll and conductive tissue. Generally they are made up of branched threads called 'hyphae' and collectively form a vegetative body called 'mycelium'. The fungus is small but the fruiting bodies can become very large up to 600mm across such as bracket fungi or mushrooms. Common fungi are mould and mildews. problem that attacks the roots causing them to rot.
Fungus can reproduce many ways but primarily it is asexually, simular to cuttings of a plant and often occurs with minute portions of the mycelium (spores) separating. The spores can be arranged in a structure such as a sporangia or pycnidia or develop without an enclosed structure called a "conidia". Either way the fungus propagates very rapidly. Sexually reproduction occurs when two nuclei unite and form sexual fruiting bodies (zygospore).
Strelitzia reginae flower
Symptoms
Fungus attacks all the above or below ground level parts of the plant living within the tissue of the plant and are very small and not normally detected until the fruiting body appears. However parasitic types such as powdery mildew or rust are visible on the outer surface of the plant.
Fungi hyphae may be divided by cross walls and known as "septate" while others with no cross walls are known as "nonseptate". These are the fungi responsible for cell leakage as in rot.
Back Mold (Chalariopsis thielavioides) affects understocks of grafted Rosa species by inhibiting the development of callus. It is whitish-grey maturing to black and can be found in the pith of the rose stem.
Black Root Rot (Chalara elegans).This recently introduced fungal disease in Australia (1993) affect plants by blackening the root systems and turning leaves yellow or purple. It is difficult to identify specifically as other pathogenic root diseases and nutritional deficiencies have simular characteristics.
The asexual spores are dispersed by wind or water. It is also transmitted on insects and in contaminated growing media or plants preferring humid moist conditions.
This fungus affects a wide range of ornamental plants including; annuals, perennials and shrubs. Examples are Begonia, Boronia, Camellia, Cyclamen, Fuchsia, Gerbera, Grevillea, Impatiens, Pansy, Petunia, Rosa species and Snapdragon.
Black Stem Rot (Pythium splendens) normally is a rot that occurs in cuttings turning the stem progressively black and shrunken. The leaves fall and the plant becomes stunted, eventually dieing.
Bleeding Necrosis (Botyosphaeria ribis) attacks and kills the inner wood causing the bark to split open and bleed sap giving it an oily appearance.
Blight (Endothia parasitica) is a serious pest of Castanea species, entering the twigs and small branches, and then progressively travelling throughout the tree killing it. It may form cankers on the base of the trunk or in the dead branches above with the amber coloured fruiting bodies pushing there way through the bark.
Copper Web ((Rhizoctonia crocorum). This fungal disease appears in defined patches causing the corms in the centre to become a black powdery mass. Corms on the outer ring of the patch that are partially infected forming a felty mass of violet threads on the corm scales. These threads extend into the soil and large sclerotia forms in the soil and on the corms. Healthy corms become infected from contaminated soil that contains mycelium and sclerotia.
Dry Rot (Phyllosticta concave) forms small circular spots that increase to a diameter of 30mm, and then becomes sunken as the cells collapse. The infected area develops minute black fruiting bodies.
Dutch Elm Disease (Ceratocystis ulmi) is a serious fungal problem of Ulmus species that initially causes yellowing then wilting of the leaves that turn brown and die. This may be seen on certain branches of the tree and on inspection under the bark the sapwood reveals brown streaks. A cross section of the affected branch displays round spots that are dark brown. This infection normally spreads quickly throughout, killing the tree in one to two seasons.
Dieback in Camellia (Glomerella cingulate) is a pathogenic fungus that infecting existing wounds such as leaf scars or mechanical damage, forming a sunken area (canker) that spreads around the stem causing die back. The affected plant has new shoots that are brown-black and the tips curl, forming a 'Shepard's Crook' appearance. The leaves also die but are persistent on the plant and the spores are found in soil or on other infected plants.
Curvularia Leaf Spot (Curvularia species) in Turf Grass. This is normally a secondary weak fungal infection that forms spots on the leaves that lengthens turning the leaves greyish. The leaf shrivels then dies and infected areas appear as weak patches in the turf. Preventive measures include minimising leaf wetness and excessive use of nitrogen fertiliser.
Fairy Rings Blue Couch
Fairy Rings are a fungal problem in Turf Grass and is caused by several species including (Lycoperdon species), (Marasmius species) and (Tricholoma species). Rings appear in the turf as fruiting bodies or dead grass and as lush green foliage. The mycelia expand radially in the turf feeding on soil nutrients and organic matter with water present.
Under severs conditions the mycelia consume all available nutrients resulting in the death of the turf. Lush turf can result from a less developed infection, where the decomposing hyphal releases nitrogen. This available nitrogen may be beneficial to the turf but some forms of nitrogen are detrimental.
Leaf Blister (Taphrina coerulescens) appears as yellowish circular raised areas on the upper side and depressions on the underside of leaves, up to 15mm across. As the fungus spreads the leaf dies but remains attached to the tree and this infection is commonly found on Quercus species..
Leaf Blotch (Guignardia aesculi) forms small or large water soaked spots that are reddish with a bright yellow margin and form black fruiting bodies in the centre. The affected leaf and petiole have a scorched appearance before falling, found on Aesculus species
Grevillea robusta
Leaf Scorch
Leaf Scorch (Verrucispora proteacearum) is a fungal disease that infects leaves causing large parts of the leaf to turn grey-brown, giving the appearance that it has been singed by fire. Black fruiting bodies appear on the affected areas and the leaf soon withers then dies. New, mature leaves are affected during very wet periods towards the end of the branches and Grevillea and Hakea species are susceptible.
Melting Out (Helminthosporium vegans) forms bluish black spots with straw coloured centres on the leaves and may be found on the sheath, encircling it causing Foot Rot. It infects grasses particularly Poa pratensis. There is another fungus that is simular Helminthosporium Blight (Helminthosporium dictyoides) that infects Poa, Festuca and Agrostis species.
Pad decay (Aspergilus alliaceus) infects Cereus and Opuntia species and occurs at during periods of high temperature. The yellow spores at the epidermal layer through wounds and germinate on mass causing the area to become soft and spongy. An anthracnose called Shot Hole is a similar forming brownish spots the turn grey, and then black destroying pads. Control methods include physically removing damaged pads and allowing the Sun to heal wounds.
Potato Gangrene (Phoma foveate) is a soil borne fungus that infects the roots during harvest primarly through wounds and develops during storage. The potatoes rot from the inside forming rounded depressions on the surface and have a strong odour of rotten fish.
Root Rot Fungi (Phymatotrichum omnivorum) and (Pellicularia filamentosa) cause the roots to rot and the plant suddenly wilts then dies.
Root Rot (Pythium debaryanum) forms water soaked dark brown streaks that affect all parts of the plant causing wilting then dieing. It infects Ranunculus species, it also infects cactus species by forming brown spotting and wilting that appears at the base of the plant then extends towards the top. It quickly spreads from plant to plant in collections and is controlled by avoiding over watering, excessive humidity and are using a sterilised soil when potting up.
This fungus also is responsible for damping off of seedlings in a glasshouse environment.
Spring Dead Spot
Spring Dead Spot (Leptosphaeri species) is a fungal disease that infects Couch Grass. It first appears during autumn as pale bleaches areas up to 500mm (20in) wide and persists throughout winter. In spring the affected areas do not recover or recover slowly and on inspection the roots or rhizomes are rotted. Runners from the surrounding healthy turf will help with recovery and all signs of the problem disappear by mid summer.
Cactus species
Pachypodium species
Stem Rot (Helminthosporium cactivorum) forms well defined yellow lesions that mature into soft dark brown rot. It commonly infects Cactus species entering through the stomates or wounds. Heavily infected plants collapse and die.
Stem Rot or Basal Rot (Pellicularia rolfsii) is a soil borne fungus that infects the stem root junction and extends into the leaves. In orchids the leaves become discoloured, dry and detach from the base which is covered in a fungal growth that produces sclerotia. The sclerotia is whitish to yellow then becoming dark brown and can be viable for up to four years.
White Mold (Ramularia desta f. odorati) occurs on both sides of the leaf and looks simular to powdery mildew but forms faint dull, reddish brown elongated spots on the leaf that may be depressed or along the margin where they have a watery appearance. Tufts of hyphae develop in the stomates.
Wilt (Ceratocystis fagacearum) causes leaves to curl then turn brown and the sap wood may also turn brown or black. Heavy infection may kill a tree within two seasons and is found on Quercus species and other ornamental trees.
Witches Broom may be a fungal problem that causes a proliferation of small axillary shoots to appear at the end of the branches. Little is known about this problem, though it affects a wide range of plants including Eucalyptus, Leptospermum and Pinus species.
Source and Dispersal
Fungus is found in the soil or on other infected plants and after releasing the spores, they are dispersed by wind or are transmitted in infected stock, insects and with splashing water.
Wilt is transmitted by infected root stocks, several species of insect and contaminated tools.
Dutch Elm Disease is transmitted by bark beetles such as (Scolytus multistriatus) and (Hylurgopinus rufipes). These beetles deposit eggs in the sapwood where the lava tunnel and pupate. The emerging beetles tunnel the bark and carry the fungus to fresh feeding sites on the tree. Infected beetles may also be transported to fresh sites in waist material.
Favoured Conditions
Prefers cool moist conditions with temperatures from 10º to 25ºC and is more common from autumn to spring when it is wet.
Affected Plants
A wide range of plants and all parts can be infected by various fungal diseases. Bleeding Necrosis is found in Liquidambar species and Stem Rot or Dry Rot infects Cactus species such as Opuntia and Pelargonium.
Abies species are infected by several fungi that cause Leaf Cast which turn the needles yellow to brown then fall prematurely.
Abutilon species are infected by the Stem Rot (Macrophomina phaseolin) affecting the lower stems and is not commonly seen.
Achillea, Cuphea, Leucanthemum, Euphorbia species are infected by the Stem Rot (Pellicularia filamentosa) which enters through the roots and rots the base of the stem.
Alternanthera species are infected by the Leaf Blight (Phyllosticta amaranthi) which forms small brown spots on the leaves causing them to curl and die.
Aloe, Astrophytum, Copiapoa, Echinocactus, Espostoa, Ferocactus, Gymnocalycium, Kalanchoe and Schlumbergerera species are infected by Bipolaris Stem Rot (Bipolaris cactivora). This infection affects many cacti species causing rot in the stems with a blackish appearance.
Amelanchler is affected by the Witches Broom (Apiosporina collinsii).
Antirrhinum species are infected by the Blight (Phyllosticta antirrhini) that forms light brown spots on the upper-side of the leaf and on the stem. As the spots enlarge they turn greyish with black fruiting bodies in the centre, then become brown and killing the affected areas.
Begonia species are infected by the Stem Rot (Pythium ultimum) turning stems black then becoming soft and causing the plant to collapse. This is the same fungus that causes Damping-off.
Betula species are affected by the Leaf Blister (Taphrina bacteriosperma) which curls the leaves and forms reddish blisters.
Chamaedorea and other cain-like species are infected with Gliocladium Stem Rot (Gliocladium vermoseni) which forms a dark basil stem rot generally on damaged plants and produces orange-pink spores. The mature leaves are first affected and eventually the stems or cains rot and die.
Crocus and Gladiolus species are infected by the Dry Rot (Stromatinia gladioli), which causes lesions on the corms and rots the leaf sheath.
Crocus, Iris, Tulipa, and Narcissus species are infected Copper Web ((Rhizoctonia crocorum).
Dianthus species are infected by Phialophora Wilt (Phialophora cinerescens) that causes the leaves to fade and plants to wilt. There is obvious vascular discoloration which is very dark. It is not found in Australia.
Erythrina x sykesii may be infected by the Root Rot Fungi (Phymatotrichum omnivorum).
Fern species are infected by Tip Blight (Phyllosticta pteridis). This blight produces ash-grey spots with purple brown margins and the fruiting bodies appear as black pimple like spots. It is transmitted by air or moisture and in infected fronds become brown and die. Control methods include sprang fungicide on leaves or reducing humidity and avoid wetting the fronds.
Forsythia species are infected by Stem Gall (Phomopsis species). It forms rounded growths along the stems causing them to die and look unsightly.
Gladiolus species are infected by Penicillium Rot of Corms (Penicillium gladioli). This disease forms deeply sunken reddish brown areas that become corky and produce a greenish fungal growth.
Hedera species are susceptible to several Fungal Leaf Spots including (Glomerella cingulate), (Phyllosticta concentrica) and (Ramularia hedericola). All of which cause yellowish spots that develop into dry brown blotches that kill the leaf.
Larix species are susceptible to Leaf Cast (Hypodermella laricis). This fungus attacks the needles and spur shoots turning them yellow at first then brown after which small black fruiting bodies appear on the leaves during winter.
There are several other fungi including (Cladosporium species) and (Lophodermium laricis) cause leaf blight or leaf casts.
Orchids such as Cattleya, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Oncidium, Paphiopedilum, Phalaenopsis and Zygopetalum species are infected by Phomopsis Rot (Phomopsis species). This fungal problem forms a firm brown rot that appears on the leaves, pseudobulbs and rhizomes. The affected areas have yellow margins and the centre is covered in tiny black specks (fruiting bodies). Cattleya species are particularly susceptible. These plants are also infected by Psudobulb Rot (Mycolleptodiscus coloratus implicated). Dark spots appear on the pseudobulbs eventually causing extensive rot and killing the bulb.
Palms are infected by the fungus Butt Rot (Ganoderma sulcatum). The fungus entered the lower trunk normally as a result of mechanical damage (lawn mower). Symptoms include stunting of new growth and yellowing of the lower leaves. Fruiting bodies become evident at the base of the trunk. There is no effective control method and replanting in infected soil should be avoided.
Kikuyu Yellows
Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu) is susceptible to Kikuyu Yellows (Verrucalvus flavofaciens), thisis a water mould that infects the roots and causes them to rot. The infection extends up the stem and onto the leaves with yellow discolouration and can be limited to a small or large area up to 1m (3ft) wide.
It is found in warm temperate to sub tropical regions and dispersed in infected soil or plant material. There is no chemical control, nitrogen fertiliser masks the symptoms and complete fertiliser encourages stronger roots to fight the disease.
Pittosporum, Antirrhinum, Aquilegia, Echinops and Orchid species are infected by the Stem Rot or Basal Rot (Pellicularia rolfsii) commonly in the northern hemisphere and preferring humid glasshouse conditions.
Solidago species are infected by the fungal Scab (Elsinoe solidaginis) which covers the leaves and stunts the growth of the plant. Young plants may be killed.
Trillium species are infected by the stem rot (Pellicularia rolfsii) and ( Ciborinia trillii). This normally occurs in wet soils and is detrimental to the plants life.
Tsuga species are infected by Sapwood Rot or Butt Rot (Ganoderma lucidum) and (Coniophora puteana), which attacks the sapwood close to the bark, towards the base of the tree. Commonly killing the host.
Tulipa species are affected Blue Mold (Penicillium species) and the fungus (Rhizopus stolonifer) causing rot in the bulbs.
Vinca species are infected by the soil born Root Rot (Pellicularia filamentosa) which rots the stems and roots.
Viola species may be infected with the Scab (Sphaceloma violae) which attacks all parts of the plant including the seed capsule forming yellowish spots that turn brown and in leaves fall out. Stems and petioles can be girdled killing the upper part.
Viola species are also infected with the Stem Rot (Myrothecium roridum) which attacks the stems at ground level causing them to become dry and brittle. The leaves show symptoms by turning purplish-black and this fungus also infects Alcea and Antirrhinum species.
Non-chemical Control
Generally remove and destroy any infected plants or plant parts, when replanting, avoid using susceptible species for 3 years. When growing crops space the plants to reduce the humidity and airflow and cultivate the soil to increase the drainage. Remove weed growth from around the susceptible plants.
Avoid over watering the surrounding soil which encourages fungal development. In the case of trees remove any infected branches and heavily infected trees should be cut down and removed. This infected material should be disposed or burnt. Damaged trees should have the wounds dressed and sealed as a preventative measure particularly for Dieback in Camellia.
Deter Potato Gangrene by planting clean stock and be careful not to damage the crop when weeding. When harvesting the tubers choose a dryer period and be careful not to damage them.
Fairy Rings
Fairy Rings in Turf are difficult to control and may appear or disappear sporadically. Cultural practice such as minimal thatch build-up, regular aeration and a reduction of organic matter spread on the turf will reduce infection.
Chemical Control
No suitable fungicides available, though drenching or spraying the soil with the fungicide dichloran helps control soil born fungi.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
Average Lowest Temperature : -1º C 30º F
USDA : 9, 10, 11
This USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) hardiness zone chart can be used to indicate a plant’s ability to withstand average minimum temperatures. However, other factors such as soil type, pH, and moisture, drainage, humidity and exposure to sun and wind will also have a direct effect on your plant’s survival. Use this chart only as a guide, always keep the other factors in mind when deciding where, when and what to plant.
A plant's individual USDA zone can be found in the Plant Overview.
Climate Description
Warm to Sub-tropical
This overlaping zone has ample rain with high summer temeperatures and high humidity. Winters are mild. Pockets of sub-tropical climates exist within coastal warm temperate zones.
Frosts and droughts rarely occur along the coast.
Plant growth
Tropical and warm temperate native and exotic plants grow well.
| Dictionary | Growth Habit |
| Leaf Type | Botanic Flower Description |
| Leaf Shape | Flower Inflorescence |
| Leaf Arrangement | Fruit Type |
| Leaf Margin | Bark Type |
| Leaf Apex And Bases | Flower Description |
