Nephrolepis exaltata

PEST

 

   NAME

     Scale Insect

     Various Scale Species

 

   ORDER

     Hemiptera

 

Description of the Pest

Generally scales are soft bodied insects that have a hard (armoured) or soft covering to hide under. They have piercing and sucking mouth parts that are attached to the host, feed off sap and soft scales commonly producing sweet honeydew, which in turn attracts sooty mould and ants.

The adult female has a circular or oval covering depending on the species and is up to 8mm across. The first stage (crawlers) hatch and wander around the leaf surface until finding a suitable place to suck sap, normally in colonies and the smaller male is relatively inconspicuous.

 

Hard Scale                   Soft Scale, attending Ants

 

Cactus Scale (Diaspis echinocacti) has a circular greyish female and a narrow white male scale and is commonly found on house plants.

 

Chain Scales (Pulvinaria species) adult females are obvious with large group of eggs that are white or cottony-like, and the tiny young light green scales are flat and oval-shaped up to 2mm long. The legged nymphs are normally arranged from head to tail along the mid rib of the leaf, and may move to a new position to feed. They excrete honeydew and attract sooty mould and are found on Acacia and Acronychia species.

 

Chinese Wax Scale

 

Chinese Wax Scale (Ceroplastes sinensis) is a domed wax scale that has dark spots around its margin and immature scales form waxy material around there margins.

 

Fern Scale on Aspidistra elatior

 

Fern Scale or Coconut Scale (Pinnaspis aspidistrae) appears as flecks up to 0.15mm long with a white covering over the male congregating on the underside of the fronds on the axils and among the sporangia causing them to turn yellow. Many species of fern are susceptible to infestation.

 

                  Flat Brown Scale

 

Flat Brown Scale (Eucalymnatus tessellates) are light brown up to 0.5mm long, flat and closely attached both sides of the leaf and causing yellowing of the foliage.

 

Juniper Scale (Diaspis carueli) is tiny and circular, white maturing to grey-black and as it feeds the needles turn yellow and die.

 

Oleander Scale (Aspidiotus hederae) is a pale yellow circular scale up to 3mm across and is found in dense colonies on the stem or leaves.

 

Tea-tree Scale (Eriococcus orariensis) are a creamy blue colour normally packed along the branches and are plump and rounded to 4mm across.

 

                  Wattle Tick Scale

 

Tick or Wattle Scale (Cryptes baccatus) adult is domed, blue-slate colour with a leathery covering up to 10mm long. All stages of growth are found in groups of over forty, packed along the stems and normally tended by ants as they produce large amounts of honeydew. A serious pest of Acacia species found inland or coastal from temperate to sub tropical climates and commonly accompanied by Sooty Mould.

 

Toxic Scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae) is a tiny flat rounded scale up to 0.15mm long and is white to pale pink. It is normally found in colonies on the small branches and twigs of shrubs. It injects a toxic substance into the host as it sucks sap causing the death of the branch.

 

Wattle Scale (Pseudococcus albizziae) is soft, plump and secrets cotton-like threads. It is not a true scale insect and is simular to mealy bugs. It is reddish-brown up to 0.4mm long and secrets large amounts of honeydew as it sucks sap in colonies along the branches.

 

Life Cycle

These insects have a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.

 

Appearance of the Pest

All parts of the plant above the soil may be attacked, but normally the stems and leaves and scale tends to favour well-lit positions.

 

Period of Activity

The nymphs and females are active for most of the year, in warm climates. Once they selected a position they attach and don't move. Normally the winged or wingless males are mobile and only soft scales produce honeydew.

 

Susceptible Plants

There is a wide range of susceptible plants including citrus, willows, holly, and many ornamentals, such as roses or Paeonia species. It also attacks indoor or glasshouse plants and Australian native plants such as wattles, hakeas, grevilleas and eucalyptus.

 

Acacia species are attacked by the Tick or Wattle Scale, which infest twigs and small branches and heavy infestations will kill the host plant.

 

Acer species are attacked by the Cotton Maple Scale (Pulvinaria innumerabilia) which prefers Acer saccharinum. Nymphs first attack the leaves and the brown adult scale is covered in a woolly mass up to 14mm across, normally found on the underside of the stems and twigs.

 

Acmena smithii, Melaleuca, Syzygium and Pittosporum species are attacked by the Chinese Wax Scale.

 

Aesculus species are attacked by several scale insects including the Walnut Scale (Aspidiotus juglans-regiae) which is saucer-shaped and attacks the main trunks.

 

Agave species are susceptible to several types of scale including (Aspidiotus nerii), (Aonidiella aurantii) and (Pinnaspis strachani), but generally do not require control.

 

Asplenium australasicum

 

Asplenium australasicum is susceptible to Coconut Scale or Fern Scale (Pinnaspis aspidistrae). It is normally found on the under side of the fronds. Small infestations cause little damage.

 

Bougainvillea species may be attacked by the soft scale (Coccus hesperidum) outdoors or under glass.

 

Calluna and Vaccinium species are attacked by the Oyster Shell Scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi).

 

Camellia species may be attacked by the Florida Red Scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum), which is small, circular and black and is found firmly attached to the underside of the leaf along the veins. On inspection after removing the scale the insect has a pale yellow body. Camellias are also attacked by a large variety of scale insects including Tea Scale and Camellia Scale.

 

Carpinus species may be attacked by the scale (Phenacoccus acericola). It is found on the underside of the leaves forming a white cotton-like clump along the veins.

 

Casuarina and Allocasuarina species may be attacked by the Casuarina Scale (Frenchia casuarinae), a black hard scale that is upright to 4mm with a pinkish body. During attachment the surrounding tissue swells up and in time can, form galls. This weakens the wood and in severe infestations may kill the tree.

 

Cotoneaster species are attacked by up to four species of scale including the Oyster Shell Scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi).

 

Cupressus species are attacked by Bark Scale (Ehrhornia cupressi) is pink and covered in white wax. Heavy infestations cause the leaves to turn yellow or reddish.

 

Flat Brown Scale on Cycas revoluta

 

Cycads, palms and some species of Callistemon are attacked by the Flat Brown Scale.

 

Erica species are attacked by several species of scale including, Greedy, Oleander and Oystershell scale.

 

Jasminum species can be infested with up to twelve types of scale.

 

Juniperus x media and other conifer species are attacked by the Juniper Scale.

 

Leptospermum species are attacked by the Tea-tree Scale which produces ample honey dew that promotes sooty mould.

 

Palm and Fern species are susceptible to attack by the Coconut Scale or Fern Scale (Pinnaspis aspidistrae) which infests the underside of the leaves. They are also hosts for many other scale species such as red, cottony cushion and tea scale.

 

Pinus species are attacked by several species of scale including the Pine Tortoise Scale (Toumeyella numismaticum) and the Red Pine Scale (Matsucoccus resinosae).

 

Polygonum odoratum is attacked by a small brown scale.

 

 

Sorbus aucuparia is attacked by a five species of scale insect, including Black Cottony Maple, San Jose and Scurfy. Generally they suck on the sap of the new growth and leaves.

 

Strelitzia species are attacked by the Greedy Scale (Aspidiotus camelliae).

 

Damage Caused

Leaves become yellow and are shed prematurely and there may be twig or stem die-back. When the infestation occurs on fruit, the fruit is small and its skin becomes pitted and cracked. Small trees and saplings that are heavily infested may be seriously damaged or die. Sooty mould can cover fruit or leaves causing a secondary problem.

 

Cactus Scale can completely cover the host cactus sucking sap and causing it to die.

 

Cultural Control

Dead or damaged parts of the plant should be removed and destroyed including fallen fruit. Small infestations may be removed by hand or squashed on the stems. Healthy plants are less susceptible to attack, so maintain vigour of the plant and avoid using high-nitrogen fertiliser that produces excessive soft young growth.

When pruning susceptible plants paint the cuts with antifungal sealant paint as scale insects are attracted to the sweet smell of the sap. This will reduce the infection rate of the plant.

 

Biological Control

Natural predators such as parasitic wasps may reduce numbers of active nymphs; parasitic wasps are bred commercially in some areas for this purpose. It should be noted, however, that wasps would avoid dusty conditions.

Other predators that assist in control are assassin bugs, ladybirds, lacewings, hover flies and scale eating caterpillars. A variety of birds also attack scales.

The control of ants that transport aphid from one host to another also reduces infestation and can be carried out by applying at least three greased bandages 5mm apart around the stem or trunk of the plant.

 

Chemical Control

Spray the entire plant with dilute white oil solution; a follow-up spray may be required after four weeks, for heavy infestations. Spraying of chemicals will also kill of natural predators and in some cases the secondary scale infestation is more prolific especially when using copper based chemicals.

Some chemical controls, such as methidathion, are available - please seek advice from your local nursery as to the suitable product for your area.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

PEST

   NAME

     Soft Brown Scale

     Coccus hesperidium

   ORDER

     Hemiptera

   FAMILY

     Coccidae

Description of the Pest

The mature female is soft, yellow-brown or dark brown scale, oval-shaped and 3-5mm long. The scale produces honeydew, which attracts ants.

Appearance and Distribution of the Pest

Known worldwide, this scale is found throughout Australia but primarily seen in warm, dry areas of eastern Australia.

                  Lophostemon confertus

Life Cycle

This insect has a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.

Females produce 1-2 eggs each day; several generations occur annually.

Period of Activity

Most activity occurs during the warmer months.

Damage Caused

Damage is caused by the sap-sucking of nymphs and adults, especially on plant shoots and leaf mid-ribs and stalks. Sooty mould is caused by honeydew production. Leaves and stems have an unattractive appearance as a result of a heavy coverage of sooty mould.

Attached to midrib          Sooty Mould

Susceptible Plants

There are many plants that are susceptible to this pest, including Citrus, Ficus, Camellia species, Nerium oleander, Lophostemon confertus and many fern or orchid species.

Araucaria heterophylla, Aloe, Arctostaphylos, Clerodendrum and Senna species are also susceptible to infestation.

Cultural Control

Rub off by hand, if numbers are small.

Biological Control

Ladybeetle larvae and adults, parasitic wasps and predatory caterpillars normally control the scale.

  Ladybeetle larvae

Chemical Control

Spray with white oil in Summer.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

PEST

 

   NAME

     Mealybugs

     Various Mealybug Species

 

   ORDER

     Hemiptera

 

   FAMILY

     Pseudococcidae

 

Description of the Pest

Adult females are 3-5mm long, flattened oval-shaped white insects, which secrete a white, mealy wax that forms a row of hair-like filaments of fairly uniform length around the edge of the body; the hind end bears one or two pairs of filaments that are longer than the others. They are mobile but slow-moving. The seldom-seen adult males are tiny winged insects with a pair of long waxy tail filaments. Early stage nymphs are tiny, pink and mobile; later stages resemble adult females.

 

                 

 

There are many types of mealybugs including;

·        Longtailed Mealybugs (Pseudococcus longispinus) generally have tail filaments that are longer than there body. If squashed yellow body fluid is revealed and the eggs are laid under the body and normally hatch immediately.

 

·        Citrus Mealybug (Planococcus citri). This insect has tail filaments that are less than 1/3 the length of its body. It produces yellow orange body fluid and lays eggs in a cottony mass.

 

·        Citrophilous Mealybug ( Pseudococcus calceolariae). This insect has tail filaments that are about 1/3 the length of its body. It produces dark red body fluid and the eggs are laid in a cottony sac.

 

·        Root Mealybug (Rhizeocus falcifer). This insect is not normally seen but produces a open white mass as it feeds on the outer or terminal roots, normally container plants, particularly cacti species. The eggs are laid in the waxy mass and adults may dispersed by ants.

 

·        Hibiscus Mealybug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus)

·        Tuber Mealybug (Pseudococcus affinis)

 

The Mealybugs (Pseudococcus  adonidum) and (Planococcus citri) are a major pest of cacti species,  sucking sap and turning the infected area yellow. These pests are also found on Strelitzia, Camellia and Yucca species.

 

Appearance and Distribution of the Pest

Mealy bugs are found worldwide. The above ground species are found in sheltered areas such as under a leaf or in leaf bases. They are also found where two fruits or leaves touch and are not readily noticeable.

 

The below ground species are only found when a plant is re-potted or the infected plant wilts and dies. Mealybugs are distributed several ways including slowly walking to a new host or transferred on clothing, contaminated plants or strong wind and on visiting insects. They are also farmed by ants which in a nursery situation infest pots by tunnelling and carrying mealybugs to the roots.

 

Attending Ants

 

Life Cycle

These insects have a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.

Up to 200 young are produced in 2-3 weeks; eggs may hatch as they are being laid. The life cycle includes eggs, nymphs (3 to 4 stages) to adult takes 6 weeks, in warmer months; several generations appear throughout the year.

 

Period of Activity

Active all year, particularly in spring and autumn. Warm, humid conditions are preferred and the insect overwinter outdoors as eggs. These may be found on surrounding weeds. In Citrus species many longtailed mealybugs overwinter as juveniles, maturing during spring. In a Glasshouse conditions mealybugs are active through the year.

 

Damage Caused

Adults and nymphs suck sap, congregating in sheltered parts of the plants; some species feed undetected on roots. Early infestations may go unnoticed until the plant begins to wilt. The insect also produces honeydew, which gives rise to sooty mould.

 

         Clivia miniata

 

Susceptible Plants

Mealybugs are found on a wide variety of trees and shrubs. They are also destructive to many ornamentals; including indoor plants (especially African violets and ferns), and are a major greenhouse pest.

 

Cactus species

Many species of mealybug are common pest of cactus and succulents.  The small, grey to light brown mealy bugs are difficult to see amongst the spines. Nesting females appear as the small balls of white fluff on cactus spines or around the base and under the rim of the pots.  The female will produce eggs or living nymphs and the insect will produce honeydew that attracts ants.  Ants should be discouraged as they farm mealy bugs, moving them from one place to another in a cactus collection.

Cactus is also attacked by the root mealybugs that infest the roots of plants and their damage allows fungal and bacterial infections to enter the plant tissue.  They can be identified by white fluffy deposits in the soil or underneath a pot and appeared as tiny pinkish brown wood lice up to 3 mm long.

 

Catalpa species are susceptible to the mealybug (Pseudococcus comstocki) which is a wax covered mealybug that causes distorted growth of the branches and branchlets.

 

Fern species are commonly attacked by mealy bugs and can be recognised by small white, waxy secretions as it feeds in the crevices at vein junctions or on the exposed rhizome.

 

Hedera and Crassula species are susceptible to three species of mealybugs including Citrus Mealybug (Planococcus citri) and not normally requiring control.

 

Laburnum anagyroides is infested with the Grape Mealybug (Pseudococcus maritimus) infesting the branches and twigs.

 

Plumeria acutifolia becomes infested with mealybugs on the new growth but normally control is not required.

 

Psidium species are attacked by the Longtailed Mealybugs (Pseudococcus longispinus).

 

Sequoia species are attacked by three species of Mealybugs including (Planococcus citri).

 

Thymus species are attacked by the Root Mealybug (Rhizeocus falcifer).

 

Thuja species Cupressus macrocarpa and Araucaria heterophylla are can be infested with the mealybugs (Pseudococcus ryani).

 

Turf Grass may be infested with mealybugs causing severs damage and often go undetected and build up large colonies quickly. The turf forms brown dry patches and looks simular to Dollar Spot the infestation may also occur around core holes and can be discouraged by generous watering. Agrostis palustris (Bent) and Cynodon species (Couch) are commonly attacked.

 

Yucca species are attacked by the mealybug (Planococcus citri).

 

Cultural Control

Small plants may be sprayed with a soapy water solution or sponged down preferably during the evening. Heavily infected areas should be pruned and destroyed or the whole plant removed. Infested pot-plants should be discarded and thoroughly disinfect pots before recycling). Maintain vigour by watering to replace sap loss, this helps infected plants to recover.

As a preventative measure for root mealybugs grind up mothballs and add them to the potting mix to discourage infestations.  Care should be taken as the chemicals in mothballs can damage plastic pots (use clay pots) and in some countries such as the UK. mothballs must be used as directed on the label.

 

Biological Control

Lacewing and ladybeetle larvae (Cryptolaemus montrouzeri) control small infestations. This predator insect requires temperatures of at least 21° C. (70°F) and in small infestations it is difficult to maintain a balance between predator and prey.  

 

     

Ladybird beetle larvae eats Mealybugs                              Ladybird beetle up to 4 mm long

 

Chemical Control

Spray with white oil may have an effect on the population or spray Omethoate. Contact insecticides are usually ineffective because of the insect's protective waxy coating.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

PEST

   NAME

     Slugs and Snails

     Various Snails Species

Description of the Pest

Slugs and snails are land molluscs. Snails produce an external spiral shell; slugs do not. The common garden snail Helix asperasa, grows up to 25 mm, long. Its body is slimy, broad, elongated and greyish, with two pairs of reticulated tentacles, with eyes at the ends of the longer pair. The mouth parts of snails and slugs contain a file-like organ known as the radula, which is used to rasp away at the host plant's tissue. Movement of the animal is by a muscular sliding movement, along a slippery trail of mucous; this solidifies on exposure to the air (typically described as a "silvery trail").

                 

Appearance and Distribution of the Pest

Slugs and snails occur world-wide. Slugs tend to be more prevalent in heavier soil types.

Life Cycle

These insects have a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.

Snail eggs are laid in moist soil, 20-40mm deep; eggs are white, spherical and appear in clusters of 30-100. Under favourable conditions, eggs hatch in 2-3 weeks. Newly emerged snails resemble tiny adults. When the weather is cold and dry, snails seal themselves into their shells where they survive, dormant, for 1-3 years.

Period of Activity

More active during the warmer months, although some species may remain active throughout the year.

Damage Caused

Native Australian slugs and snails are not commercial pests. Introduced species chew holes in foliage or skeletonise leaves; some plants may be completely defoliated plants; tubers and seedlings may be completely eaten. Slugs and snails feed mainly at night, especially after rain or watering; they shelter in cool, moist locations during the day. When the weather is dry, snails seal themselves into their shells with a mucous membrane, where they survive, dormant, for 1-3 years. Some species may consume up to one third of their body weight each day.

                 

Susceptible Plants

A wide range of leafy plants, including ground crops, potatoes, tubers, leafy vegetables and seedlings.

Fern species are attacked causing serious damage. New fronds are repetitively eaten causing the plant to become stunted. Attacks are normally more severe during wet periods during which time control measures should be taken.

Morinda citrifolia is attacked by the Giant African Snail (Achatina fulica) which defoliates trees.

                 

Cultural Control

Remove possible hiding places and avoid overhead watering to reduce humidity. Cultivate soil regularly; in commercial situations, allow the soil to remain fallow for one season to reduce numbers. Domestic infestations may be removed by hand. Traps may be created by inverting small pots near where snails and slugs are feeding; they will gather in these shelters during the day, and may be collected and destroyed. The popular Australian "beer trap" consists of a vertically-sided container, sunk into the ground and filled with beer, which intoxicates and drowns the snails.

Biological Control

Natural predators such as birds, frogs, and lizards reduce numbers, but do not provide effective control. Orchardists have used running ducks to control snails with some success.

Chemical Control

Commercial baits - molluscicides - made from methiocarb or metaldehyde are effective when used in combination with sanitation. Their effectiveness varies according to soil and weather conditions; it is generally recommended to avoid watering after application.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

PEST

   NAME

     Whitefly, Snow flies

     Various Whitefly Species

   ORDER

     Hemiptera

   FAMILY

     Aleyrodidae

Description of the Pest

This is a small sap sucking moth-like insect up to 3mm long with winged adults that have a covering of fine white powder, hence the common name. The wings are folded flat over the body and males live for one month and females live up to three months. The eggs are laid on the underside of the leaf and the wingless nymphs are immobile, flattened-round scale -like with a fringe of waxy filaments. The nymphs are translucent to greenish, congregating on young plant tissue and both adults and nymphs suck sap and producing honeydew.  

There are several species such as Ash whitefly (Siphoninus phillyreae), Tobacco whitefly (Bemesia tabaci), Silverleaf whitefly and Spiralling whitefly (Aleurodicus disperses)

Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum)

This species of whitefly normally grow to 2mm long with two pairs of wings. Their colour is due to a covering of a fine white wax and the insect has a white-moth appearance. If disturbed the insects swarm and resettle on the plant quickly. The first nymphal stage is mobile and the later stage is scale-like with fine waxy marginal hairs. These nymphal stages produce honeydew, which encourages sooty mould. It is a persistent pest commonly found in glasshouses.

Adult                   Appearance under the leaf

The Hakea Whitefly (Synaleurodicus hakeae) is a small, moth-like up to 0.15mm wide with wings that have a powdery coating and produce flattened scale-like nymphs. Both adult and nymph gather together in colonies and suck sap.

Appearance and Distribution of the Pest

The eggs are laid during the spring and the adults tend to stay on the underside of the leaf until disturbed, when they fly in mass and may infect other plants. Many plants are only susceptible to this insect when cultivated under glass.

Life Cycle

This insect has a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.

White flies have a gradual metamorphosis, egg and four nymphal stages. One generation occurs from three to eight weeks and is dependant on the current weather. Hundreds of eggs are deposited on the underside of leaves in arch or circles each with a short stalk.

Eggs laid in a pattern      Eggs laid in a pattern

After hatching the first nymphal stage wanders around on the leaf surface for several days. Then selects a place to suck sap where it goes through all nymphal stages emerging as an adult after the fourth stage.

Period of Activity

This peat is found from tropical to temperate regions and is most active during warm weather. It is difficult to predict an infestation, as some years it is severe and other years it is absent. In glasshouse conditions it is often a problem and may extend outside the normal period of activity. They overwinter in the egg stage or find sheltered places to hide.

Damage Caused

Affected plants have leaves with yellowish to white mottling on the upper surface or with shiny secretions on new shoots or on the underside. Heavy infestations cause leaves to wilt and sooty mould to appear on the honeydew. Plant looses vigour and in some cases die.

                  Tagetes erecta

Susceptible Plants

Whiteflies attack a wide range of plants affected by this insect, including Abutilon, Boronia, Hibiscus and Fuchsia species. Citrus, Vegetables, Ferns and certain weed species are venerable. Australian native plants are also attacked, such as the Hakea species.

Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) attacks a wide range of ornamental plants, weeds and vegetables including; Phaseolus (beans), Lycopersicon  (tomatoes), potatoes, Cucumis (cucurbits), Lactuca (lettuce), Dendranthema (Chrysanthemum), Dahlia and Hibiscus species.

Several ferns, including Adiantum, Asplenium, Davallia, Nephrolepis, Onychium, Platycerium and Pteris species are attacked with nymphs congregating on the underside of the fronds, normally causing little damage.

Rhododendron species are attacked by the Rhododendron White Fly (Dialeurodes chittendeni) causing yellowish mottled appearance on the upper surface of the leaf.

Cultural Control

It is difficult to control with out the application of chemicals, though strong jets of water greatly disturb the colonies. Companion plantings with basil or other aromatic plants deters white flies or spray the plants with onion-garlic spray.

In an enclosed environment sticky fly paper can reduce numbers. When the nymphal stage is found an application of white oil will reduce numbers.

Biological Control

A parasitic wasp (Encarsia Formosa) attacks nymphal stages reducing numbers. Other predators include small birds, spiders, ladybirds and there lava, hover flies, damsel flies and mantids.

Chemical Control

Plants may be sprayed with Dimethoate, permethrin, bifenthrin or pirimiphos-methyl, but some insects have immunity to chemicals. The pest may also be sprayed with a mixture of white oil and nicotine sulphate or pyrethrum.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

DISEASE

   NAME

     Leaf Spot (General)

     Various Leaf Spot Species

Description

There is a wide variety of fungal leaf spots that infect perennials, shrub and trees. Some are specific to the host while others can affect a range of plants.

Symptoms

Generally light brown to purplish or blackish spots appear on the leaf and form concentric rings of fruiting bodies. The spots may leave holes, perforating the leaf or expand with pale green to yellowish margins and when the holes merge the leaf normally dies. There are many different types of leaf spot, some are discussed below.

Alocasia species     

Alternaria Leaf Spot (Alternaria nelumbii) forms a small reddish brown spots that are boarded in light green, and as they develop in size the leaf curls and dies from the margin inwards. Normally occurs on Nelumbo species (water lilies).

Helminthosporium Disease

Helminthosporium Disease (Bipolris species), (Drechslera species) and (Exserophilum species) are responsible for several leaf spots that occur on all Turf Grass species. Generally they form black or white spots that may be faded and produce masses of spores in the thatch during late summer, under humid conditions. The life cycle is short and when conditions are favourable spores are splashed onto the foliage from the thatch, causing wide spread infection. Cynodon dactylon (common couch) is most susceptible and found in bowling or golf greens where it is a serious problem.

Banana Leaf Spot     

Banana Leaf Spot (Mycosphaerella musicola) is found on many species of banana causing pale yellow streaks on the young leaves to turn brown with dark spots. The leaf then becomes dried, brown and dead commencing from the margins, eventually the leaf dies. Control requires removal of infected foliage or the spraying of a fungicide and fungicides should not be used during the fruiting period.

                  Lophostemon confertus (Brush Box)

Leaf Spot on Brush Box (Elsinoe species). This is a casual fungus that attacks the epidermal layer of the leaf, forming circular spots that are up to 25mm across and are often restricted by the main vein.  These spots are a dull yellowish brown but can also have purplish patterns.  A leaf may have more than one spot develop on its surface and normally appears on scattered leaves throughout the tree.  This doesn't affect the vigour of Lophostemon confertus.

Palm Leaf-scab (Graphiola phoeicis) appears as yellow spots and develop into scabs or warts that are outwards hard and dark but with a soft centre with powdery yellowish brown spores. The infected leaves eventually die.

Palm Leaf Spot, Chamaedorea elegans

Palm Leaf Spot (Pestaloptiopsis species) appears as a small spot with a dark centre on the leaves and affects palms that are growing in shaded humid positions and normally control is not required, though infected fronds should be removed.

Source and Dispersal

Infection source is other contaminated plants and the spores are spread by wind or by splashing water.  The fruiting bodies are black spots that appear on the damaged tissue releasing spores.

Favoured Conditions

This fungus prefers a warm humid environment and leafy plants with soft new growth, particularly if they are crowded.

        

Affected Plants

There are many ornamental and native plants that are hosts to a wide range of fungal leaf spots. Some specific ones are listed below. Plants such as Cornus or Paeonia species are infected by a large variety of leaf spots, while other plants attract a specific leaf spot.

Generally a healthy plant can tolerate fungal leaf spot attack, though it may make the plant look unsightly. In trees and shrubs it is difficult to control and generally not necessary, but in perennials and annuals control may be necessary in order to save the plant.

Acalypha and Arctotis species are infected by up to three leaf spots including (Cercospora acalyphae) and (Ramularia acalyphae) that rarely require control.

Acer species are infected by Purple Eye (Phyllosticta minima) which forms spots with brownish centres and purplish margins causing the death of the leaves.

Acer species are also infected by Tar Spot (Rhytisma acerinum) which forms round black spots that have yellow margins. Not normally seen on cultivated trees, but seen in forests.

Adiantum, Asplenium, Blechnum, Cyathea, Davallia, Nephrolepis, Platycerium, Polypodium and Pteris species are infected by the leaf spot (Pseudocercopora species) which forms circular brown spots on the fronds and heavy infection can defoliate a plant.

Aesculus species are occasionally infected with the leaf spot (Septoria hippocastani) which forms small brown spots.

Agave species are susceptible to the leaf spot (Coniothyrium concentricum), which appear as greyish spots up to 20mm (1in) across with concentric rings and black fruiting bodies. Affected leaves are destroyed as the infection spreads.

Albizia julibrissin is susceptible to the fungal leaf spot (gloeosporium aletridis), which does not normally require control.

Amelanchler, Chaenomeles, Crataegus and Rhaphiolepis species Mespilus germanica are infected by the leaf spot (Fabraea maculata) which may cause considerable damage during wet periods.

Aquilegia species can be infected by three types of Leaf Spot including (Ascochyta aquilegiae), (Cercospora aquilegiae) and (Septoria aquilegiae), normally appearing during humid conditions forming spots on the leaves.

Arbutus species are infected by two leaf spots (Septoria Unedonis) which produces small brown spots on the leaves and (Elsinoe mattirolianum).

Arctostaphylos manzanita is infected by the leave spot (Cryptostictis arbuti) which damages leaves but is not normally detrimental to the shrub.

Aspidistra species are infected by the leaf spot (Colletotrichum omnivorum) causing whitish spots on the leaves and petiole.

Aster species are infected by many leaf spots including (Alternaria species), (Cercosporella cana), ( Ovularia asteris) and (Septoria asteris).

Aucuba species are infected by several leaf spots, usually as a secondary infection after aphid attack. These include (Phyllosticta aucubae) and (Phyllostica aucubae).

                     Azalea

Azalea (Rhododendron species) are susceptible to Leaf Scorch (Septoria azalea). This fungal disease forms reddish- brown spots which expand and engulf the leaf, with fruiting bodies appearing in the centre. Infected leaves die, then fall and the branchlets wilt. This problem is more serious during wet periods and may require control using a fungicide.

Banksia robur

Banksia species are infected by several leaf spots causing chlorotic areas that have brown centres and is not normally a major problem for the plant.

Betula species may be infected by the Leaf Spots (Gloeosporium betularum) that forms brown spots with darker margins and (Cylindrosporium betulae) that also forms brown spots with faded indefinite margins.

Bougainvillea species are infected by the leaf spot (Cercosporidium bougainvilleae) which forms rounded spots with dark margins that yellowish ting. Infected leaves die and fall from the plant.

Calendula species are infected by the Leaf Spot (Cercospora calendulae) which rapidly infects the plant spotting the leaves and killing the plant.

Callicarpa species may be infected by the leaf spot (Atractilina callicarpae) forming irregular brownish spot or (Cercospora callicarpae) which can defoliate the plant in subtropical climates.

Campsis species may be infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Phyllosticta tecomae), (Septoria tecomae) and (Cercospora duplicata).

Carpinus species are infected by the leaf spots (Gloeosporium robergei), (Gnomoniella fimbriata) and (Septoria carpinea), all are minor infections not normally requiring control.

Carya species are infected by several leaf spots including (Gnomonia caryae) that infects leaves with irregular reddish spots on the upper surface with corresponding brown spore producing spots on the underside. It also has a secondary spore release that occurs on the dead leaves where it over winters. Other leaf spots include (monochaetia desmazierii) and (Marssonina juglandis).

Ceanothus species are susceptible to the leaf spot (Cercospora ceanothi) and (Phyllosticta ceanothi) both are of minor importance not requiring control.

Celtis species are infected by many leaf spots including (Cercosporella celtidis), (Cylindrosporium celtidis), (Phleospora celtidis) and (Septogloeum celtidis).

Chrysanthemums species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria species) which forms yellow spots appear toward the edge of the leaves; these become enlarged brownish patches with yellow margins.  Damaged areas may converge and in severe attacks and the leaves may fall prematurely or flower production is reduced.

Clematis species are infected by the fungal disease (Ascochyta clematidina) which may cause stem rot or leaf spots that are water soaked areas with reddish margins. The infection spreads from the leaves to the stem causing wilting and eventually girdling the stem killing the plant. There are many fungal leaf spots that infect this plant including (Cercospora rubigo) and (Septoria clematidis)

Dracaena deremensis

Cordyline and Dracaena species may be infected by the leaf spot (Phyllosticta maculicola) which forms small brownish spots that have yellowish margins and has black fruiting bodies that forms coils of spores. These plants are also susceptible to other leaf spots such as (Glomerella cincta) and (Phyllosticta dracaaaenae). Keep foliage dry to avoid infection.

Cynodon dactylon,  Pennisetum clandestinum and many other Turf Grasses are susceptible to Helminthosporium Disease.

Daphne species are infected by the leaf spot (Gloeosporium mezerei) and (Marssonina daphnes) both of which form thickish brown spots that are seen on both sides of the leaves. Infected leaves turn yellowish before dieing.

Dendranthema species are infected by many leaf spots such as (Septoria chrysanthemi) which first forms yellowish spots up to 25mm (1in) across that become black. Infected leaves die prematurely and persist on the plant.

Dianthus species may be infected by the leaf spot (Septoria dianthi). It forms light brown rounded spots that have a purplish border. The scattered spots on the lower leaves can also be found on the stems and the spores are dispersed by water from the tiny black fruiting bodies.

Dieffenbachia species are infected by several leaf spot fungi including (Cephalosporium species) and (Myrothecium species).

Eucalyptus species

Eucalyptus species are infected by many fungal leaf spots such as (Mycosphaeralla species), (Hendersonia species) and (Monocheatia monochaeta). Generally leaf spots appear on the juvenile or new leaves causing brownish spots that enlarge and may have a purplish halo around the margin.  Mature adult leaves are not normally infected and the trees rarely require control measures.

Fern species are infected by the leaf spot, (Alternaria polypodii). This fungus appears as brown circular or oblong spots that congregate along the margins of the pinnae causing the fronds to turn brown and die.  It is spread by wind currents from plant to plant and control methods include removing infected fronds and maintaining a drier atmosphere.

Ficus species are infected by various fungal leaf spot including (Pseudocercospora species). Generally the fungal attack forms circular or irregular dark coloured spots on the leaves eventually causing them to fall prematurely.

Ficus elastica is susceptible to many fungal leaf spots including (Alternaria species), (Leptostromella elastica) and (Phyllosticta roberti).

                    Strawberry

Fragaria x ananassa (Strawberry) is infected by the fungal leaf spot (Mycospharella fragariae). The mature leaf is initially infected with well defined brown spots that that turn light grey with red-purplish margins. As the spots merge they form large brown blotches and the leaf turns yellow then dies. This fungal attack normally occurs on plants in poor health and can be a serious problem early in the season seriously damaging stock.

Fraxinus species

Fraxinus species are infected by the leaf spot (Gloeosporium aridum) giving the leaf a scorched appearance as large blotches appear from the margin or apex and turn brown with a papery texture. It is more prevalent during rainy periods and infected leaves fall prematurely. Collect and depose of fallen leaves otherwise control is not normally required.

Fuchsia species may be infected by the leaf spot (Septoria species) or ( Cercospora species), both form spots with dead centres and dark margins.

Gladiolus species are infected by Hard Rot or Leaf Spot (Septoria gladioli). On the corms reddish brown circular water soaked spots become large and sunken. These areas dry out and form obvious margins. The leaves may also have these symptoms but is not commonly seen.

Hemerocallis species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cercospora hemerocallis) and (Heterosporium iridis). These may be in the form of black spots or brownish spots that converge killing the leaf. Infected leaves should be removed and burnt.

Hibiscus species

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Hibiscus syriacus and Hibiscus tiliaceus are susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including (Ascochyta abelmoschi), (Cerospora kellermanii) and (Phyllosticta hibiscina). All cause spotting or blotching of the leaf surface; remove and destroy infected parts.

Hydrangea species are infected by four fungal species including (Ascochyta hydrangeae), (Phyllosticta hydrangeae) and (Septoria hydrangeae).

Iris species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Alternaria iridicola) and (Macosphaerella species).

Iris species are also infected by the leaf spot (Didymellina macrospore) that forms greyish spots with brown water soaked borders and coalesce on the upper part of the leaf. This casual organism commonly occurs after flowering killing the leaves but will not infect the bulbs. The bulbs become weak over several seasons due to the decreased foliage.

There is also a Bacterial Leaf Spot (Bacterium tardicrescens) that is commonly mistaken as a fungal problem causing translucent spots that coalesce and involve the entire leaf. Normally found on Iris species.

Laburnum anagyroides is infected by the Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta cytisii). The leaf forms light grey spots with no definite margin and mature to brown. The black fruiting bodies appear as dots in the centre of the spot.

Leucanthemum species are infected by the leaf spot (Cerocspora chrysanthemi) and (Septoria leucanthemi).

Magnolia species are susceptible to many species including (Alternaria tenuis), (Mycosphaerella milleri) and (Phyllosticta species). Leaves generally turn brown from the apex or margins turning brown or spots appear on the leaf surface and leaves become yellow before withering and dieing. Normally the make the tree look poorly but have little effect on its growth. Control is not normally required.

Nerium oleander is susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including (Cercospora nerella), (Cercospora repens), (Gloesporium species) and (Phyllosticta nerii). Infected leaves should be removed but generally control is not required.

Nyssa sylvatica is infected by the leaf spot (Mycosphaerella nyssaecola) forming irregular purplish blotches.

Orchids such as Cattleya, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Paphiopedilum, Phalaenopsis and Zygopetalum species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cerospora, Colletotrichum and Phyllosticta species). Normally forming dark or dead, circular or irregular areas on the leaves.

Palms such as Syagrus, Howea, Phoenix, Roystonea and Washingtonia species are infected by Leaf-scab (Graphiola phoeicis).

Palms such as Archontophoenix, Caryota, Chamaedorea, Cocos, Dypsis, Howea, Liculia, Linospadix, Livistona, Phoenix, Ptychosperma, Rhapis, Roystonea, Syagrus, Washingtonia and Wodyetia species are susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including;

(Bipolaris spp.), (Cylindrocladium spp.), (Colletotrichum spp.) and (Pestalotiopsis spp.).

Generally the circular leaf spots are brown and may have a yellow halo such as Palm Ring Spot (Bipolaris incurvata). They vary in size from small to large depending on the species. When a plant is healthy it recovers from attack, but heavy infections can defoliate, causing the collapse of the plant.

Palms are also infected by the Brachybasidium Leaf Spot (Brachybasidium pinangae). This fungus forms angular leaf lesions that produce fruiting bodies on the underside and is commonly found on Archontophoenix species.

                  Archontophoenix cunninghamiana

Passiflora species are infected with many types of leaf spot such as (Alternaria passiflorae).

Phoenix species are susceptible to False Smut (Graphiola phoenicis). This fungus forms yellow leaf spots that become hard with a raised with a blackish scab, which produces masses of powdery spores that are thread-like.

                  Pittosporum species

Pittosporum species are susceptible to the leaf spots (Alternaria tenuissima), (Phyllostica species) and (Cercospora pittospori). Circular or angular dark spots appear on the leaves and are surrounded by necrotic areas that are yellowish. Generally removal of infected leaves is adequate control.

Poa species and other cool season grasses are infected by Winter Fusarium Leaf Disease (Fusarium species), which causes small pale spots that are water soaked to appear on the leaves that turn red-brown. Infected leaves become bleached then wither and die, but the infection will not affect the crown or roots of the plant. It can be identified by pink, cotton-like mycelium and the plant prefers cold wet weather.

Populus species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Ciborinia bifrons, Ciborinia confundens), and (Mycosphaerella populicola).

Prunus species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cercospora circumscissa and Septoria ravenelii).

Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir is infected by the Leaf Cast (Rhabdocline pseudotsugae) Symptoms include the needles becoming yellowish at the apex and extending down the needle and spreading to others during moist spring weather turning them brown. Brownish scorched areas are noticeable on the tree from a distance. Control; is not normally required for mature trees but nursery stock may require spraying with a copper based fungicide.  

Psidium guajava (Guava) is infected by (Glomerella cingulate). This fungus courses spots to appear on leaves and mummifies and blackens immature fruit or rots mature fruit.  This fungus can devastate a guava crop.  

Quercus species are infected by several types of leaf spot including (Cylindrosporium microspilum) and (Marssonina martini). These attacks tend top take place later in the season and normally not detrimental to the tree.

Rhododendron species are infected by a large variety of fungal leaf spots including (Cercospora rhododendri) and (lophodermium melaleucum)

Salix species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Ascochyta salicis) and (Septogloeum salicinum).

Senecio species are infected by the fungal leaf spot (Alternaria cinerariae) and (Cercospora species), forming dark rounded or angular spots.

Spiraea species are attacked by the fungal leaf spot (Cylindrosporium filipendulae).

Stenotaphrum secundatum (Buffalo) turf grass is susceptible to Grey Leaf Spot (Pyricularia grisea) in domestic and commercial situations devastating lawns. This fungal disease infects the stems and leaves with small brown lesions that enlarge rapidly forming grey-brown spots that have darker borders or surrounded by yellow chlorotic areas. This infection is commonly found on newly laid turf but will also infect established lawns. It is most prevalent during warm humid periods in soil with a high nitrogen level.

Syringa species are attacked by up to six species of leaf spot including (Cercospora lilacis) and (Phyllostica species).

Syzygium species

Syzygium species are infected by fungal leaf spots but normally control is not required.

Tagetes species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria tageticola), which starts at the base and moves progressively up through the plant, covering the leaves in grey to black spots.

Trillium species are host to several leaf spots, including (Colletotrichum peckii) (Gloeosporium Trillii) (Heterosporium trillii).

Ulmus species are infected by many fungal leaf spots including (Gnomonia ulmea) and (Cercospora sphaeriaeformis).

Veronica species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria veronicae). The symptoms include small violet to brown spots appear on the upper surface of the leaf and correspondingly yellowish brown on the underside. The spots converge forming a scorched shot-hole appearance and eventually death of the leaf.

Vaccinium ovatum

Vaccinium ovatum is infected by the leaf spot (Rhytisma vaccinii) and (Dothichiza caroliniana).

Vicia species are infected by the leaf spot (Erostrotheca multiformis), which forms greyish spots that enlarge and may defoliate the plant.

Wisteria species are infected by three fungal leaf spots (Phyllostica wisteriae), (Septoria wisteriae) and (Phomatospora wisteriae).

Non-chemical Control

Remove and destroy infected plant material and avoid overhead watering.  When planting select infection resistant varieties. Practice crop rotation and add pot ash to the soil to decrease the plants venerability to the disease. Many species of fungus overwinter in fallen leaves, remove and destroy any litter under the plant.  

Winter Fusarium Leaf Disease in Turf Grasses can be minimised by aerating the soil, reducing thatch and avoid excessive nitrogen in the soil.

Chemical Control

Protective fungicides such as zineb or copper oxychloride should be sprayed at the first sign of infection and cuttings should be sprayed as they start to grow.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

DISEASE

   NAME

     Leaf Nematodes

     Aphelenchoides species

Description

These microscopic size soil borne nematodes attack leaves by entering through the stomates but are restricted by the veins. The nematode can resurface and move around the leaf in water, infesting other parts of the leaf.  

                 

Leaf Nematode (Aphelenchoides ritzema-bosi) enters the plant when the stems and wet allowing the nematode swim to the stomates in the leaf. The leaf forms yellowish to brown spots that are contained by the veins but merge eventually turning the entire leaf brown then dieing. It infects greenhouse and outdoor Chrysanthemum and Penstemon species.

Stem Nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) enters through the stomates in young shoots and working upwards as thew stem grows causing the leaves to become malformed. Flowers fail to open, stems may grow sideways and the plant becomes stunted, dieing prematurely. The main host is Phlox species but not all are affected.

Symptoms

Infested fronds of ferns turn brown to black and may die prematurely. Other softer foliage plants such as Chrysanthemums form yellow spots initially that are constricted by veins. These areas become dark brown turning black in severs attacks with the leaf withering and collapsing.

Source and Dispersal

The nematodes remain active in plant material for up to 18 months. They are dispersed by infected plant cuttings or soil and travel along a film of water on the outside of the plant. They can also be dispersed by splashing water from the soil or from another plant.

Favoured Conditions

Humid cool conditions are preferred, as in after periods of rain or following overhead watering. They also prefer over crowded fernery stock.

Affected Plants

A wide range of plants are affected these include, Australian native plants in the Asteraceae family or Anigozanthos and Lophostemon species. Ferns such as Asplenium, Blechnum and Pteris species are also susceptible.

Plumeria acutifolia

Many ornamentals, perennials, annuals, trees and shrubs are also attacked include;

Begonia, Bergenia, Chrysanthemum, Coleus, Cyclamen, Gloxinia, Impatient, Penstemon, Plumeria and Saintpaulia species.

Ficus and Philodendron species are occasionally attacked by the leaf nematode (Aphelenchoides fragariae) forming angular markings that are water soaked at first, and then turning brown appearing on the leaf surface.

Non-chemical Control

Heavily infected plants and infested parts should be removed and burnt. Infected plant parts may be immersed in hot water at 45 deg for up to 15 minutes. This can only be used in local infestations and the immersed period varies according to the species.

Be certain to propagate from uninfected plant material and avoid replanting with susceptible species.

Chemical Control

Application of a systemic pesticide such as Fenthion are effective, but must be used as soon as the damage appears and repeated fortnightly.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.