Hakea purpurea

PEST

   NAME

     Tip Borer

     Various Tip Borer Species

   ORDER

     Various

Description of the Pest

There is many species of moths which are brown, blackish or white up to 30mm long. Generally the fleshy, greenish to cream coloured larvae grow to 25mm long and are sparsely hairy. The Callistemon Tip Borer is laid by a metallic to blackish moth and the larvae are creamy grubs that have true legs. Some larvae are very active when disturbed such as the fleshy Macadamia Twig Girdler which has darker strips on its body and a dark head.

Dieback Borer Damage

Dieback Borer (Platyomopsis armatula) adult is a grey-brown beetle up to 20mm long with small lumps on its wing covers and long antennae. The 15mm long cream coloured larva tunnel under the bark and feed on the sapwood causing ringbarking. The entrance to the tunnel is covered in frass and plants in the Myrtaceae family such as Eucalyptus species are susceptible.  

Elm Twig Girdler (Oberea tripunctata). The adult beetle feeds on twigs causing girdling then deposits eggs during spring. The lava tunnels down the centre of the stem from the girdled point and overwinters in the tunnels. Twigs up to 14mm diameter may snap off at the damaged point and Ulmus species are normally the host.

Mahogany Shoot Borer (Hypsipyla grandella). The adult is a greyish-brown moth with a wingspan up to 45mm with the wings and veins distinctly overlayed in black. It deposits oval eggs that are tiny 0.50mm wide normally deposited in the leaf axil and change colour from white to red in the first 12 hours. In 3 to5 days the larvae emerges and can grow to 25mm long and is brownish white when young and maturing to bluish with a brown head capsule. Swietenia species are damaged as the larvae bore into the new shoots normally during spring or during the rainy season. The shoots and branches wilt then collapse. This is a major economic pest for cultivated trees.

Red Cedar Tip Moth (Hypsipyla robusta) adult is a grey moth with a wing span up to 20mm across and produces fleshy lava with true legs up to 20 mm long that tunnels into the tips of twigs. The tunnels are surrounded by webbing that is littered with pelleted droppings and is normally found on Toona species.

Staghorn Borer larvae grow to 15mm long and are greyish with true legs and the grey adult moth has a wingspan up to 20mm across. It attacks Platycerium species by eating tunnels into the sterile fronds.

Appearance and Distribution of the Pest

They are found mainly on the coast but also inland and are distributed by flying with the assistance of wind.

Life Cycle

These insects have a Holometabolous life cycle, ie. When metamorphosis is observed during the pupal stage.

Eggs are laid in bark on the growing tips. Larvae shelter in tunnels they create in the wood, up to 20mm deep.

Period of Activity

Active throughout the year in warm climates and are commonly found from tropical to sub-tropical and temperate regions.

Damage Caused

Generally the symptoms of tip borers is yellowing and curling of the leaves which wilt then die or shoots become blackened and are noticeable in the tree. Extensive feeding by a number of larvae causes dieback but normally, this is a minor pest.

The larvae emerge from their tunnels at night, to feed on the bark around the entrance holes. Entrance holes are covered by a layer of chewed wood fragments ("frass") and silk webbing. Most damage appears on twigs and new growth.

Typical larvae

The Callistemon Tip Borer tunnels down the centre of the twigs causing then to die or break off and the Macadamia Twig Girdler (Neodrepta luteotactella) form tunnels in sapwood that are covered in fine webbing that is dotted in brown excreted pellets. This is the same appearance as the Banksia Web-covering Borer (Xylorycta strigata) larva makes, as it tunnels down the centre of shoots.

Susceptible Plants

Many native and ornamental plants are susceptible to tip borers such as Callistemon, Melaleuca, Banksia, Hakea, Macadamia and Stenocarpus species

Eucalyptus, Callistemon, Corymbia, Leptospermum and Melaleuca species are attacked by the Dieback Borer (Platyomopsis armatula). Twigs and small branches are attacked and the larvae causes ring bark. Affected branches break easily in high winds.

Sambucus, Yucca and Delphinium species are attacked the Common Stalk Borer (Papaipema nebris) which attacks the stems causing the plant to wilt and topple over.

Cultural Control

Larvae may be destroyed after exposure by pulling away the covering pad of frass, or by pushing a length of wire into the tunnel. Damaged branches may be removed, or tunnels plugged.  Infested perennials or annuals should be removed and destroyed.

Biological Control

No effective biological control.

Chemical Control

Spray with Carbaryl (including the trunks or stems) if necessary while the insects are active.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

PEST

 

   NAME

     Scale Insect

     Various Scale Species

 

   ORDER

     Hemiptera

 

Description of the Pest

Generally scales are soft bodied insects that have a hard (armoured) or soft covering to hide under. They have piercing and sucking mouth parts that are attached to the host, feed off sap and soft scales commonly producing sweet honeydew, which in turn attracts sooty mould and ants.

The adult female has a circular or oval covering depending on the species and is up to 8mm across. The first stage (crawlers) hatch and wander around the leaf surface until finding a suitable place to suck sap, normally in colonies and the smaller male is relatively inconspicuous.

 

Hard Scale                   Soft Scale, attending Ants

 

Cactus Scale (Diaspis echinocacti) has a circular greyish female and a narrow white male scale and is commonly found on house plants.

 

Chain Scales (Pulvinaria species) adult females are obvious with large group of eggs that are white or cottony-like, and the tiny young light green scales are flat and oval-shaped up to 2mm long. The legged nymphs are normally arranged from head to tail along the mid rib of the leaf, and may move to a new position to feed. They excrete honeydew and attract sooty mould and are found on Acacia and Acronychia species.

 

Chinese Wax Scale

 

Chinese Wax Scale (Ceroplastes sinensis) is a domed wax scale that has dark spots around its margin and immature scales form waxy material around there margins.

 

Fern Scale on Aspidistra elatior

 

Fern Scale or Coconut Scale (Pinnaspis aspidistrae) appears as flecks up to 0.15mm long with a white covering over the male congregating on the underside of the fronds on the axils and among the sporangia causing them to turn yellow. Many species of fern are susceptible to infestation.

 

                  Flat Brown Scale

 

Flat Brown Scale (Eucalymnatus tessellates) are light brown up to 0.5mm long, flat and closely attached both sides of the leaf and causing yellowing of the foliage.

 

Juniper Scale (Diaspis carueli) is tiny and circular, white maturing to grey-black and as it feeds the needles turn yellow and die.

 

Oleander Scale (Aspidiotus hederae) is a pale yellow circular scale up to 3mm across and is found in dense colonies on the stem or leaves.

 

Tea-tree Scale (Eriococcus orariensis) are a creamy blue colour normally packed along the branches and are plump and rounded to 4mm across.

 

                  Wattle Tick Scale

 

Tick or Wattle Scale (Cryptes baccatus) adult is domed, blue-slate colour with a leathery covering up to 10mm long. All stages of growth are found in groups of over forty, packed along the stems and normally tended by ants as they produce large amounts of honeydew. A serious pest of Acacia species found inland or coastal from temperate to sub tropical climates and commonly accompanied by Sooty Mould.

 

Toxic Scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae) is a tiny flat rounded scale up to 0.15mm long and is white to pale pink. It is normally found in colonies on the small branches and twigs of shrubs. It injects a toxic substance into the host as it sucks sap causing the death of the branch.

 

Wattle Scale (Pseudococcus albizziae) is soft, plump and secrets cotton-like threads. It is not a true scale insect and is simular to mealy bugs. It is reddish-brown up to 0.4mm long and secrets large amounts of honeydew as it sucks sap in colonies along the branches.

 

Life Cycle

These insects have a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.

 

Appearance of the Pest

All parts of the plant above the soil may be attacked, but normally the stems and leaves and scale tends to favour well-lit positions.

 

Period of Activity

The nymphs and females are active for most of the year, in warm climates. Once they selected a position they attach and don't move. Normally the winged or wingless males are mobile and only soft scales produce honeydew.

 

Susceptible Plants

There is a wide range of susceptible plants including citrus, willows, holly, and many ornamentals, such as roses or Paeonia species. It also attacks indoor or glasshouse plants and Australian native plants such as wattles, hakeas, grevilleas and eucalyptus.

 

Acacia species are attacked by the Tick or Wattle Scale, which infest twigs and small branches and heavy infestations will kill the host plant.

 

Acer species are attacked by the Cotton Maple Scale (Pulvinaria innumerabilia) which prefers Acer saccharinum. Nymphs first attack the leaves and the brown adult scale is covered in a woolly mass up to 14mm across, normally found on the underside of the stems and twigs.

 

Acmena smithii, Melaleuca, Syzygium and Pittosporum species are attacked by the Chinese Wax Scale.

 

Aesculus species are attacked by several scale insects including the Walnut Scale (Aspidiotus juglans-regiae) which is saucer-shaped and attacks the main trunks.

 

Agave species are susceptible to several types of scale including (Aspidiotus nerii), (Aonidiella aurantii) and (Pinnaspis strachani), but generally do not require control.

 

Asplenium australasicum

 

Asplenium australasicum is susceptible to Coconut Scale or Fern Scale (Pinnaspis aspidistrae). It is normally found on the under side of the fronds. Small infestations cause little damage.

 

Bougainvillea species may be attacked by the soft scale (Coccus hesperidum) outdoors or under glass.

 

Calluna and Vaccinium species are attacked by the Oyster Shell Scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi).

 

Camellia species may be attacked by the Florida Red Scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum), which is small, circular and black and is found firmly attached to the underside of the leaf along the veins. On inspection after removing the scale the insect has a pale yellow body. Camellias are also attacked by a large variety of scale insects including Tea Scale and Camellia Scale.

 

Carpinus species may be attacked by the scale (Phenacoccus acericola). It is found on the underside of the leaves forming a white cotton-like clump along the veins.

 

Casuarina and Allocasuarina species may be attacked by the Casuarina Scale (Frenchia casuarinae), a black hard scale that is upright to 4mm with a pinkish body. During attachment the surrounding tissue swells up and in time can, form galls. This weakens the wood and in severe infestations may kill the tree.

 

Cotoneaster species are attacked by up to four species of scale including the Oyster Shell Scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi).

 

Cupressus species are attacked by Bark Scale (Ehrhornia cupressi) is pink and covered in white wax. Heavy infestations cause the leaves to turn yellow or reddish.

 

Flat Brown Scale on Cycas revoluta

 

Cycads, palms and some species of Callistemon are attacked by the Flat Brown Scale.

 

Erica species are attacked by several species of scale including, Greedy, Oleander and Oystershell scale.

 

Jasminum species can be infested with up to twelve types of scale.

 

Juniperus x media and other conifer species are attacked by the Juniper Scale.

 

Leptospermum species are attacked by the Tea-tree Scale which produces ample honey dew that promotes sooty mould.

 

Palm and Fern species are susceptible to attack by the Coconut Scale or Fern Scale (Pinnaspis aspidistrae) which infests the underside of the leaves. They are also hosts for many other scale species such as red, cottony cushion and tea scale.

 

Pinus species are attacked by several species of scale including the Pine Tortoise Scale (Toumeyella numismaticum) and the Red Pine Scale (Matsucoccus resinosae).

 

Polygonum odoratum is attacked by a small brown scale.

 

 

Sorbus aucuparia is attacked by a five species of scale insect, including Black Cottony Maple, San Jose and Scurfy. Generally they suck on the sap of the new growth and leaves.

 

Strelitzia species are attacked by the Greedy Scale (Aspidiotus camelliae).

 

Damage Caused

Leaves become yellow and are shed prematurely and there may be twig or stem die-back. When the infestation occurs on fruit, the fruit is small and its skin becomes pitted and cracked. Small trees and saplings that are heavily infested may be seriously damaged or die. Sooty mould can cover fruit or leaves causing a secondary problem.

 

Cactus Scale can completely cover the host cactus sucking sap and causing it to die.

 

Cultural Control

Dead or damaged parts of the plant should be removed and destroyed including fallen fruit. Small infestations may be removed by hand or squashed on the stems. Healthy plants are less susceptible to attack, so maintain vigour of the plant and avoid using high-nitrogen fertiliser that produces excessive soft young growth.

When pruning susceptible plants paint the cuts with antifungal sealant paint as scale insects are attracted to the sweet smell of the sap. This will reduce the infection rate of the plant.

 

Biological Control

Natural predators such as parasitic wasps may reduce numbers of active nymphs; parasitic wasps are bred commercially in some areas for this purpose. It should be noted, however, that wasps would avoid dusty conditions.

Other predators that assist in control are assassin bugs, ladybirds, lacewings, hover flies and scale eating caterpillars. A variety of birds also attack scales.

The control of ants that transport aphid from one host to another also reduces infestation and can be carried out by applying at least three greased bandages 5mm apart around the stem or trunk of the plant.

 

Chemical Control

Spray the entire plant with dilute white oil solution; a follow-up spray may be required after four weeks, for heavy infestations. Spraying of chemicals will also kill of natural predators and in some cases the secondary scale infestation is more prolific especially when using copper based chemicals.

Some chemical controls, such as methidathion, are available - please seek advice from your local nursery as to the suitable product for your area.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

PEST

   NAME

     Cottonycushion Scale

     Icerya purchasi

   ORDER

     Hemiptera

   FAMILY

     Margarodidae

Description of the Pest

This pest is also known as Ribbed Scale or Bark-louse. The small soft bodied female is oval shaped, reddish-brown, and produces an extended fluted egg sack up to 10mm long that is covered with white, waxy threads. The crawlers are red with dark legs and the adult males are winged. The nymphs infest the ribs and veins of leaves, sucking the sap. Adults and nymphs suck sap with piercing and sucking mouth-parts and ants are attracted to the honeydew produced by feeding nymphs.

       Image by B. Sonsie

Appearance and Distribution of the Pest

This insect has a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.

Adults appear during the warmer months and infest twigs branches and are found on the trunks of some trees.  Ants will usually be present as feeding nymphs produce honeydew, as will the Verdalia ladybeetle, (Rodolia cardinalis), which feeds on the nymphs.

This Australian native insect has been introduced to many countries such as the USA, India, Egypt and South Africa and was only brought under control by the introduction of the Verdalia ladybeetle.

Period of Activity

There are usually two hatches each year, in early spring and late summer.

Susceptible Plants

There are many plants that are attacked by this insect including Australian native species such as Acacia, Eucalyptus, Pittosporum, Hakea and Grevilleas.

Ornamental trees and shrubs are also attacked including fruit trees and citrus, Liquidambar, Salix, Nerium, Magnolia, and Rosa species.

Palm such as Archontophoenix and Howea species are also attacked particularly when grown as an indoor or glasshouse specimen.

Damage Caused

Heavy infestations may cause die-back, particularly where natural predators are absent (eg in glass-houses). The excretion of honeydew promotes sooty mold that restricts the leaves capability to photosynthesize.

Cultural Control

Dead or damaged parts of the plant should be removed and destroyed including fallen fruit. Small infestations may be removed by hand or squashed on the stems. Healthy plants are less susceptible to attack, so maintain vigour of the plant and avoid using high-nitrogen fertiliser that produces excessive soft young growth.

When pruning susceptible plants paint the cuts with antifungal sealant paint as scale insects are attracted to the sweet smell of the sap. This will reduce the infection rate of the plant.

Biological Control

Natural predators such as parasitic wasps may reduce numbers of active nymphs; parasitic wasps are bred commercially in some areas for this purpose and the main natural predator is the Verdalia ladybeetle, (Rodolia cardinalis). It should be noted, however, that wasps would avoid dusty conditions.

Other predators that assist in control are assassin bugs, lacewings, hover flies and scale eating caterpillars. A variety of birds also attack scales.

Chemical Control

Normally not necessary.

PEST

   NAME

     Whitefly, Snow flies

     Various Whitefly Species

   ORDER

     Hemiptera

   FAMILY

     Aleyrodidae

Description of the Pest

This is a small sap sucking moth-like insect up to 3mm long with winged adults that have a covering of fine white powder, hence the common name. The wings are folded flat over the body and males live for one month and females live up to three months. The eggs are laid on the underside of the leaf and the wingless nymphs are immobile, flattened-round scale -like with a fringe of waxy filaments. The nymphs are translucent to greenish, congregating on young plant tissue and both adults and nymphs suck sap and producing honeydew.  

There are several species such as Ash whitefly (Siphoninus phillyreae), Tobacco whitefly (Bemesia tabaci), Silverleaf whitefly and Spiralling whitefly (Aleurodicus disperses)

Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum)

This species of whitefly normally grow to 2mm long with two pairs of wings. Their colour is due to a covering of a fine white wax and the insect has a white-moth appearance. If disturbed the insects swarm and resettle on the plant quickly. The first nymphal stage is mobile and the later stage is scale-like with fine waxy marginal hairs. These nymphal stages produce honeydew, which encourages sooty mould. It is a persistent pest commonly found in glasshouses.

Adult                   Appearance under the leaf

The Hakea Whitefly (Synaleurodicus hakeae) is a small, moth-like up to 0.15mm wide with wings that have a powdery coating and produce flattened scale-like nymphs. Both adult and nymph gather together in colonies and suck sap.

Appearance and Distribution of the Pest

The eggs are laid during the spring and the adults tend to stay on the underside of the leaf until disturbed, when they fly in mass and may infect other plants. Many plants are only susceptible to this insect when cultivated under glass.

Life Cycle

This insect has a Hemimetabolous life cycle, ie. When the immature nymphs resemble the adults.

White flies have a gradual metamorphosis, egg and four nymphal stages. One generation occurs from three to eight weeks and is dependant on the current weather. Hundreds of eggs are deposited on the underside of leaves in arch or circles each with a short stalk.

Eggs laid in a pattern      Eggs laid in a pattern

After hatching the first nymphal stage wanders around on the leaf surface for several days. Then selects a place to suck sap where it goes through all nymphal stages emerging as an adult after the fourth stage.

Period of Activity

This peat is found from tropical to temperate regions and is most active during warm weather. It is difficult to predict an infestation, as some years it is severe and other years it is absent. In glasshouse conditions it is often a problem and may extend outside the normal period of activity. They overwinter in the egg stage or find sheltered places to hide.

Damage Caused

Affected plants have leaves with yellowish to white mottling on the upper surface or with shiny secretions on new shoots or on the underside. Heavy infestations cause leaves to wilt and sooty mould to appear on the honeydew. Plant looses vigour and in some cases die.

                  Tagetes erecta

Susceptible Plants

Whiteflies attack a wide range of plants affected by this insect, including Abutilon, Boronia, Hibiscus and Fuchsia species. Citrus, Vegetables, Ferns and certain weed species are venerable. Australian native plants are also attacked, such as the Hakea species.

Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) attacks a wide range of ornamental plants, weeds and vegetables including; Phaseolus (beans), Lycopersicon  (tomatoes), potatoes, Cucumis (cucurbits), Lactuca (lettuce), Dendranthema (Chrysanthemum), Dahlia and Hibiscus species.

Several ferns, including Adiantum, Asplenium, Davallia, Nephrolepis, Onychium, Platycerium and Pteris species are attacked with nymphs congregating on the underside of the fronds, normally causing little damage.

Rhododendron species are attacked by the Rhododendron White Fly (Dialeurodes chittendeni) causing yellowish mottled appearance on the upper surface of the leaf.

Cultural Control

It is difficult to control with out the application of chemicals, though strong jets of water greatly disturb the colonies. Companion plantings with basil or other aromatic plants deters white flies or spray the plants with onion-garlic spray.

In an enclosed environment sticky fly paper can reduce numbers. When the nymphal stage is found an application of white oil will reduce numbers.

Biological Control

A parasitic wasp (Encarsia Formosa) attacks nymphal stages reducing numbers. Other predators include small birds, spiders, ladybirds and there lava, hover flies, damsel flies and mantids.

Chemical Control

Plants may be sprayed with Dimethoate, permethrin, bifenthrin or pirimiphos-methyl, but some insects have immunity to chemicals. The pest may also be sprayed with a mixture of white oil and nicotine sulphate or pyrethrum.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

PEST

   NAME

     Looper Caterpillars

     Various Looper Caterpillar Species

   ORDER

     Lepidoptera

   FAMILY

     Noctuidae

Description of the Pest

The looper is so-called because of the larvae's characteristic "looping" movement: the back legs move forward behind the front legs, causing the body to arch into an inverted "U" shape. They vary in colour and size; Brown Looper (Lophodes sinistraria) can grow to 50mm long, glossy black with yellowish bands then maturing to brown and found in coastal sub-tropical regions.

Green Wattle Looper (Thalaina species) adult is a small white moth with a wing span of 40mm and the lava is a slender green caterpillar with a rounded head. It is commonly found on ferny leaves Acacia species and when it is not feeding it takes up an erect position imitating a twig growing at an angle. It is difficult to detect and normally not requiring control.

Grevillea Lopper (Oenochroma vinaria) is a slender caterpillar that is greyish with orange bands and has two thorn-like projections on its back towards the head that it uses in a defence position. It is hairless with mottled orange colouring and grows to 80mm long.  The adult moth (pink belly moth) has a wing span up to 60mm across and is pinkish.

Brown Looper (Lophodes sinistraria) are black with yellowish bands at first maturing to brown growing to 50mm long. It is a solitary feeder eating mature leaves and are found in tropical to sub tropical regions.

Appearance and Distribution of the Pest

Many species are found throughout Australia from tropical to temperate regions.

                 

Life Cycle

These insects have a Holometabolous life cycle, ie. When metamorphosis is observed during the pupal stage.

Period of Activity

Most active during the warmer months the larva feed generally in the early morning or in the evening. Caterpillars are also active during cloudy days.

Damage Caused

Larvae are voracious feeders, skeletonising leaves or stripping them to the midrib preferring new growth.. Certain species feed solitary while others in groups.

The Grevillea Lopper feeds solitary or in groups defoliating small areas in species such as Lambertia and Grevillea.  

                 

Susceptible Plants

A wide range of native and exotic plants are attacked, depending on the species of looper. Plants with soft-textured foliage (eg vegetables, some indoor plants) are preferred.  The Brown Looper is found on Acmena smithii, Waterhousea floribunda and Macadamia species.

Tropaeolum and Calendula species are attacked by the Cabbage Looper (Trichoplusia ni), which feeds on the leaves and flowers.Tropaeolum species are also attacked by the caterpillar (Pieris rapae), which eats the foliage.

Cultural Control

Small numbers may be removed by hand.

Biological Control

Birds and other predators reduce numbers.

Chemical Control

The plant may be sprayed using Carbaryl. During heavy infestations this method is effective.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

Note: Plants affected by this pest are Deer Resistant plants not the susceptible plants.

 

PEST

   NAME

     Deer

     Cervus species

   ORDER

     Artiodactyla

   FAMILY

     Cervidae

 

 

Description of the Pest

There are two species of the deer in North America, the Whitetail (Odocoileus virginianus) and the Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) with several regional variations such as the Pacific coastal Blacktail (O.h. columbianus) which is regarded as a sub-species of the Mule deer.

 

The Whitetail on average grows to 112 cm (44in) tall and 180 mm (70 in) long and weigh 68 kgs (150lbs). The fir colour varies according to its environment but generally it is reddish-brown during summer and grey-brown in winter with a pure white underside on its tail. When the tail is erect it is known as the "white flag". Its antlers consist of two main beams from which the points emerge.

 

The Mule deer grow to 105 cm (42 in) tall and are up to 200 cm (80 in) long with the adult buck weighing up to 137 kgs (300 lbs) and the does up to 80 kgs (175 lbs). The fir is generally tawny brown during summer and during winter it has a heaver grey-brown to blue-grey coat with a small white tail that is tipped in black. The other distinguishing features are its ears that are up to 300 mm (1 ft) long (mule-like) and its antlers, with the two beams that are forked into smaller beams, which inturn fork again and again.

 

The Blacktail deer (Pacific coastal Blacktail) grows to 97 cm (38 in) tall and is up to 105 cm (60 in) long and weighs on average 73 kgs (160 lbs). The fir is generally tawny brown during summer and during winter it has a heaver grey-brown to blue-grey coat with a tail that is dark brown at the base then changing to black for 50% of its length. The antlers consist of two beams that are forked into smaller beams, which inturn fork again and again.

 

Appearance and Distribution of the Pest

The Whitetail deer are found throughout eastern United States, on the coast and inland but are not commonly seen in California, Utah or Nevada. They do not migrate but congregate together (yard up) during winter and feed in a part of their existing territory.

 

The Mule Deer are found in the western part of North America from South eastern Alaska to Mexico and from the Pacific coast to Texas. They migrate from highland mountain meadows to southern or lower snow free forested valleys during winter.

 

The Blacktail deer are found on the Pacific coast from Alaska to northern California. There is both resident and migratory Blacktails. The  migratory Blacktails move southwards during late autumn at the first sigh of snow or heavy sustained rain and the resident Blacktails seek cover their existing territory amongst woodlands during the winter months.  

 

Life Cycle

All Deer breed from autumn to early winter and the does give birth from late spring to early summer.

 

Period of Activity

Deer are most active from spring to autumn but can be troublesome during winter when the feed is scarce. In some regions urban landscapes become the major food source both in summer and winter.

 

Damage Caused

Browsing deer will feed on almost any plant and is most commonly noticeable during spring feeding on the new growth or twigs and stems leaving a shredded appearance. Deer also rub their antlers against trees damaging bark and snapping off small branches, this action also incurs damage under hoof as plants, lawns and garden structures are trampled on.

 

Susceptible Plants

Some plants are more palatable to deer but when a deer is hungry or during drought conditions there are no "Deer Proof" plants. There is a range of plants that have a bad taste and are not destroyed and are regarded as (deer resistant plants). Deer resistant plants are the plants that are attached to this file not the susceptible plants.

 

Cultural Control

There are many cultural controls that have been tried to move browsing deer such as frightening them with strobe lights, pyrotechnics or tethered savage dogs. These actions are only temporary and may cause more trouble as the stampeding animals move off. Fencing and netting can be an effective method of discouraging hungry deer from gardens but may be expensive on a large scale and require maintenance. There are several types of fences which include conventional 2.2m (8 ft) deer-proof woven wire fences or single-wire electric fences and slanted deer fences. Plant selection can also be effective, by using less desirable plants (deer resistant plants) as an outer border to the more desirable plant species and  thus discouraging the deer to enter the garden. Hedges and windrows of less desirable thorny plants can also be a deterrent to browsing deer.

 

Chemical Control

There are two main types of repellents contact and area. Contact repellents are applied directly to the plants and deter deer with a bad taste or smell. They can be applied by rubbing or spraying on to the plants and commonly used in an egg mixture. The commercial products have proven to work better than home remedies which include soap or chilli mixtures and hanging bags of human hair.

Area repellents rely on an offensive odour and are placed around areas that are frequently visited.

 

Contact your local distributor for available types and application.

DISEASE

   NAME

     Leaf Spot (General)

     Various Leaf Spot Species

Description

There is a wide variety of fungal leaf spots that infect perennials, shrub and trees. Some are specific to the host while others can affect a range of plants.

Symptoms

Generally light brown to purplish or blackish spots appear on the leaf and form concentric rings of fruiting bodies. The spots may leave holes, perforating the leaf or expand with pale green to yellowish margins and when the holes merge the leaf normally dies. There are many different types of leaf spot, some are discussed below.

Alocasia species     

Alternaria Leaf Spot (Alternaria nelumbii) forms a small reddish brown spots that are boarded in light green, and as they develop in size the leaf curls and dies from the margin inwards. Normally occurs on Nelumbo species (water lilies).

Helminthosporium Disease

Helminthosporium Disease (Bipolris species), (Drechslera species) and (Exserophilum species) are responsible for several leaf spots that occur on all Turf Grass species. Generally they form black or white spots that may be faded and produce masses of spores in the thatch during late summer, under humid conditions. The life cycle is short and when conditions are favourable spores are splashed onto the foliage from the thatch, causing wide spread infection. Cynodon dactylon (common couch) is most susceptible and found in bowling or golf greens where it is a serious problem.

Banana Leaf Spot     

Banana Leaf Spot (Mycosphaerella musicola) is found on many species of banana causing pale yellow streaks on the young leaves to turn brown with dark spots. The leaf then becomes dried, brown and dead commencing from the margins, eventually the leaf dies. Control requires removal of infected foliage or the spraying of a fungicide and fungicides should not be used during the fruiting period.

                  Lophostemon confertus (Brush Box)

Leaf Spot on Brush Box (Elsinoe species). This is a casual fungus that attacks the epidermal layer of the leaf, forming circular spots that are up to 25mm across and are often restricted by the main vein.  These spots are a dull yellowish brown but can also have purplish patterns.  A leaf may have more than one spot develop on its surface and normally appears on scattered leaves throughout the tree.  This doesn't affect the vigour of Lophostemon confertus.

Palm Leaf-scab (Graphiola phoeicis) appears as yellow spots and develop into scabs or warts that are outwards hard and dark but with a soft centre with powdery yellowish brown spores. The infected leaves eventually die.

Palm Leaf Spot, Chamaedorea elegans

Palm Leaf Spot (Pestaloptiopsis species) appears as a small spot with a dark centre on the leaves and affects palms that are growing in shaded humid positions and normally control is not required, though infected fronds should be removed.

Source and Dispersal

Infection source is other contaminated plants and the spores are spread by wind or by splashing water.  The fruiting bodies are black spots that appear on the damaged tissue releasing spores.

Favoured Conditions

This fungus prefers a warm humid environment and leafy plants with soft new growth, particularly if they are crowded.

        

Affected Plants

There are many ornamental and native plants that are hosts to a wide range of fungal leaf spots. Some specific ones are listed below. Plants such as Cornus or Paeonia species are infected by a large variety of leaf spots, while other plants attract a specific leaf spot.

Generally a healthy plant can tolerate fungal leaf spot attack, though it may make the plant look unsightly. In trees and shrubs it is difficult to control and generally not necessary, but in perennials and annuals control may be necessary in order to save the plant.

Acalypha and Arctotis species are infected by up to three leaf spots including (Cercospora acalyphae) and (Ramularia acalyphae) that rarely require control.

Acer species are infected by Purple Eye (Phyllosticta minima) which forms spots with brownish centres and purplish margins causing the death of the leaves.

Acer species are also infected by Tar Spot (Rhytisma acerinum) which forms round black spots that have yellow margins. Not normally seen on cultivated trees, but seen in forests.

Adiantum, Asplenium, Blechnum, Cyathea, Davallia, Nephrolepis, Platycerium, Polypodium and Pteris species are infected by the leaf spot (Pseudocercopora species) which forms circular brown spots on the fronds and heavy infection can defoliate a plant.

Aesculus species are occasionally infected with the leaf spot (Septoria hippocastani) which forms small brown spots.

Agave species are susceptible to the leaf spot (Coniothyrium concentricum), which appear as greyish spots up to 20mm (1in) across with concentric rings and black fruiting bodies. Affected leaves are destroyed as the infection spreads.

Albizia julibrissin is susceptible to the fungal leaf spot (gloeosporium aletridis), which does not normally require control.

Amelanchler, Chaenomeles, Crataegus and Rhaphiolepis species Mespilus germanica are infected by the leaf spot (Fabraea maculata) which may cause considerable damage during wet periods.

Aquilegia species can be infected by three types of Leaf Spot including (Ascochyta aquilegiae), (Cercospora aquilegiae) and (Septoria aquilegiae), normally appearing during humid conditions forming spots on the leaves.

Arbutus species are infected by two leaf spots (Septoria Unedonis) which produces small brown spots on the leaves and (Elsinoe mattirolianum).

Arctostaphylos manzanita is infected by the leave spot (Cryptostictis arbuti) which damages leaves but is not normally detrimental to the shrub.

Aspidistra species are infected by the leaf spot (Colletotrichum omnivorum) causing whitish spots on the leaves and petiole.

Aster species are infected by many leaf spots including (Alternaria species), (Cercosporella cana), ( Ovularia asteris) and (Septoria asteris).

Aucuba species are infected by several leaf spots, usually as a secondary infection after aphid attack. These include (Phyllosticta aucubae) and (Phyllostica aucubae).

                     Azalea

Azalea (Rhododendron species) are susceptible to Leaf Scorch (Septoria azalea). This fungal disease forms reddish- brown spots which expand and engulf the leaf, with fruiting bodies appearing in the centre. Infected leaves die, then fall and the branchlets wilt. This problem is more serious during wet periods and may require control using a fungicide.

Banksia robur

Banksia species are infected by several leaf spots causing chlorotic areas that have brown centres and is not normally a major problem for the plant.

Betula species may be infected by the Leaf Spots (Gloeosporium betularum) that forms brown spots with darker margins and (Cylindrosporium betulae) that also forms brown spots with faded indefinite margins.

Bougainvillea species are infected by the leaf spot (Cercosporidium bougainvilleae) which forms rounded spots with dark margins that yellowish ting. Infected leaves die and fall from the plant.

Calendula species are infected by the Leaf Spot (Cercospora calendulae) which rapidly infects the plant spotting the leaves and killing the plant.

Callicarpa species may be infected by the leaf spot (Atractilina callicarpae) forming irregular brownish spot or (Cercospora callicarpae) which can defoliate the plant in subtropical climates.

Campsis species may be infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Phyllosticta tecomae), (Septoria tecomae) and (Cercospora duplicata).

Carpinus species are infected by the leaf spots (Gloeosporium robergei), (Gnomoniella fimbriata) and (Septoria carpinea), all are minor infections not normally requiring control.

Carya species are infected by several leaf spots including (Gnomonia caryae) that infects leaves with irregular reddish spots on the upper surface with corresponding brown spore producing spots on the underside. It also has a secondary spore release that occurs on the dead leaves where it over winters. Other leaf spots include (monochaetia desmazierii) and (Marssonina juglandis).

Ceanothus species are susceptible to the leaf spot (Cercospora ceanothi) and (Phyllosticta ceanothi) both are of minor importance not requiring control.

Celtis species are infected by many leaf spots including (Cercosporella celtidis), (Cylindrosporium celtidis), (Phleospora celtidis) and (Septogloeum celtidis).

Chrysanthemums species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria species) which forms yellow spots appear toward the edge of the leaves; these become enlarged brownish patches with yellow margins.  Damaged areas may converge and in severe attacks and the leaves may fall prematurely or flower production is reduced.

Clematis species are infected by the fungal disease (Ascochyta clematidina) which may cause stem rot or leaf spots that are water soaked areas with reddish margins. The infection spreads from the leaves to the stem causing wilting and eventually girdling the stem killing the plant. There are many fungal leaf spots that infect this plant including (Cercospora rubigo) and (Septoria clematidis)

Dracaena deremensis

Cordyline and Dracaena species may be infected by the leaf spot (Phyllosticta maculicola) which forms small brownish spots that have yellowish margins and has black fruiting bodies that forms coils of spores. These plants are also susceptible to other leaf spots such as (Glomerella cincta) and (Phyllosticta dracaaaenae). Keep foliage dry to avoid infection.

Cynodon dactylon,  Pennisetum clandestinum and many other Turf Grasses are susceptible to Helminthosporium Disease.

Daphne species are infected by the leaf spot (Gloeosporium mezerei) and (Marssonina daphnes) both of which form thickish brown spots that are seen on both sides of the leaves. Infected leaves turn yellowish before dieing.

Dendranthema species are infected by many leaf spots such as (Septoria chrysanthemi) which first forms yellowish spots up to 25mm (1in) across that become black. Infected leaves die prematurely and persist on the plant.

Dianthus species may be infected by the leaf spot (Septoria dianthi). It forms light brown rounded spots that have a purplish border. The scattered spots on the lower leaves can also be found on the stems and the spores are dispersed by water from the tiny black fruiting bodies.

Dieffenbachia species are infected by several leaf spot fungi including (Cephalosporium species) and (Myrothecium species).

Eucalyptus species

Eucalyptus species are infected by many fungal leaf spots such as (Mycosphaeralla species), (Hendersonia species) and (Monocheatia monochaeta). Generally leaf spots appear on the juvenile or new leaves causing brownish spots that enlarge and may have a purplish halo around the margin.  Mature adult leaves are not normally infected and the trees rarely require control measures.

Fern species are infected by the leaf spot, (Alternaria polypodii). This fungus appears as brown circular or oblong spots that congregate along the margins of the pinnae causing the fronds to turn brown and die.  It is spread by wind currents from plant to plant and control methods include removing infected fronds and maintaining a drier atmosphere.

Ficus species are infected by various fungal leaf spot including (Pseudocercospora species). Generally the fungal attack forms circular or irregular dark coloured spots on the leaves eventually causing them to fall prematurely.

Ficus elastica is susceptible to many fungal leaf spots including (Alternaria species), (Leptostromella elastica) and (Phyllosticta roberti).

                    Strawberry

Fragaria x ananassa (Strawberry) is infected by the fungal leaf spot (Mycospharella fragariae). The mature leaf is initially infected with well defined brown spots that that turn light grey with red-purplish margins. As the spots merge they form large brown blotches and the leaf turns yellow then dies. This fungal attack normally occurs on plants in poor health and can be a serious problem early in the season seriously damaging stock.

Fraxinus species

Fraxinus species are infected by the leaf spot (Gloeosporium aridum) giving the leaf a scorched appearance as large blotches appear from the margin or apex and turn brown with a papery texture. It is more prevalent during rainy periods and infected leaves fall prematurely. Collect and depose of fallen leaves otherwise control is not normally required.

Fuchsia species may be infected by the leaf spot (Septoria species) or ( Cercospora species), both form spots with dead centres and dark margins.

Gladiolus species are infected by Hard Rot or Leaf Spot (Septoria gladioli). On the corms reddish brown circular water soaked spots become large and sunken. These areas dry out and form obvious margins. The leaves may also have these symptoms but is not commonly seen.

Hemerocallis species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cercospora hemerocallis) and (Heterosporium iridis). These may be in the form of black spots or brownish spots that converge killing the leaf. Infected leaves should be removed and burnt.

Hibiscus species

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Hibiscus syriacus and Hibiscus tiliaceus are susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including (Ascochyta abelmoschi), (Cerospora kellermanii) and (Phyllosticta hibiscina). All cause spotting or blotching of the leaf surface; remove and destroy infected parts.

Hydrangea species are infected by four fungal species including (Ascochyta hydrangeae), (Phyllosticta hydrangeae) and (Septoria hydrangeae).

Iris species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Alternaria iridicola) and (Macosphaerella species).

Iris species are also infected by the leaf spot (Didymellina macrospore) that forms greyish spots with brown water soaked borders and coalesce on the upper part of the leaf. This casual organism commonly occurs after flowering killing the leaves but will not infect the bulbs. The bulbs become weak over several seasons due to the decreased foliage.

There is also a Bacterial Leaf Spot (Bacterium tardicrescens) that is commonly mistaken as a fungal problem causing translucent spots that coalesce and involve the entire leaf. Normally found on Iris species.

Laburnum anagyroides is infected by the Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta cytisii). The leaf forms light grey spots with no definite margin and mature to brown. The black fruiting bodies appear as dots in the centre of the spot.

Leucanthemum species are infected by the leaf spot (Cerocspora chrysanthemi) and (Septoria leucanthemi).

Magnolia species are susceptible to many species including (Alternaria tenuis), (Mycosphaerella milleri) and (Phyllosticta species). Leaves generally turn brown from the apex or margins turning brown or spots appear on the leaf surface and leaves become yellow before withering and dieing. Normally the make the tree look poorly but have little effect on its growth. Control is not normally required.

Nerium oleander is susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including (Cercospora nerella), (Cercospora repens), (Gloesporium species) and (Phyllosticta nerii). Infected leaves should be removed but generally control is not required.

Nyssa sylvatica is infected by the leaf spot (Mycosphaerella nyssaecola) forming irregular purplish blotches.

Orchids such as Cattleya, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Paphiopedilum, Phalaenopsis and Zygopetalum species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cerospora, Colletotrichum and Phyllosticta species). Normally forming dark or dead, circular or irregular areas on the leaves.

Palms such as Syagrus, Howea, Phoenix, Roystonea and Washingtonia species are infected by Leaf-scab (Graphiola phoeicis).

Palms such as Archontophoenix, Caryota, Chamaedorea, Cocos, Dypsis, Howea, Liculia, Linospadix, Livistona, Phoenix, Ptychosperma, Rhapis, Roystonea, Syagrus, Washingtonia and Wodyetia species are susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including;

(Bipolaris spp.), (Cylindrocladium spp.), (Colletotrichum spp.) and (Pestalotiopsis spp.).

Generally the circular leaf spots are brown and may have a yellow halo such as Palm Ring Spot (Bipolaris incurvata). They vary in size from small to large depending on the species. When a plant is healthy it recovers from attack, but heavy infections can defoliate, causing the collapse of the plant.

Palms are also infected by the Brachybasidium Leaf Spot (Brachybasidium pinangae). This fungus forms angular leaf lesions that produce fruiting bodies on the underside and is commonly found on Archontophoenix species.

                  Archontophoenix cunninghamiana

Passiflora species are infected with many types of leaf spot such as (Alternaria passiflorae).

Phoenix species are susceptible to False Smut (Graphiola phoenicis). This fungus forms yellow leaf spots that become hard with a raised with a blackish scab, which produces masses of powdery spores that are thread-like.

                  Pittosporum species

Pittosporum species are susceptible to the leaf spots (Alternaria tenuissima), (Phyllostica species) and (Cercospora pittospori). Circular or angular dark spots appear on the leaves and are surrounded by necrotic areas that are yellowish. Generally removal of infected leaves is adequate control.

Poa species and other cool season grasses are infected by Winter Fusarium Leaf Disease (Fusarium species), which causes small pale spots that are water soaked to appear on the leaves that turn red-brown. Infected leaves become bleached then wither and die, but the infection will not affect the crown or roots of the plant. It can be identified by pink, cotton-like mycelium and the plant prefers cold wet weather.

Populus species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Ciborinia bifrons, Ciborinia confundens), and (Mycosphaerella populicola).

Prunus species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cercospora circumscissa and Septoria ravenelii).

Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir is infected by the Leaf Cast (Rhabdocline pseudotsugae) Symptoms include the needles becoming yellowish at the apex and extending down the needle and spreading to others during moist spring weather turning them brown. Brownish scorched areas are noticeable on the tree from a distance. Control; is not normally required for mature trees but nursery stock may require spraying with a copper based fungicide.  

Psidium guajava (Guava) is infected by (Glomerella cingulate). This fungus courses spots to appear on leaves and mummifies and blackens immature fruit or rots mature fruit.  This fungus can devastate a guava crop.  

Quercus species are infected by several types of leaf spot including (Cylindrosporium microspilum) and (Marssonina martini). These attacks tend top take place later in the season and normally not detrimental to the tree.

Rhododendron species are infected by a large variety of fungal leaf spots including (Cercospora rhododendri) and (lophodermium melaleucum)

Salix species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Ascochyta salicis) and (Septogloeum salicinum).

Senecio species are infected by the fungal leaf spot (Alternaria cinerariae) and (Cercospora species), forming dark rounded or angular spots.

Spiraea species are attacked by the fungal leaf spot (Cylindrosporium filipendulae).

Stenotaphrum secundatum (Buffalo) turf grass is susceptible to Grey Leaf Spot (Pyricularia grisea) in domestic and commercial situations devastating lawns. This fungal disease infects the stems and leaves with small brown lesions that enlarge rapidly forming grey-brown spots that have darker borders or surrounded by yellow chlorotic areas. This infection is commonly found on newly laid turf but will also infect established lawns. It is most prevalent during warm humid periods in soil with a high nitrogen level.

Syringa species are attacked by up to six species of leaf spot including (Cercospora lilacis) and (Phyllostica species).

Syzygium species

Syzygium species are infected by fungal leaf spots but normally control is not required.

Tagetes species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria tageticola), which starts at the base and moves progressively up through the plant, covering the leaves in grey to black spots.

Trillium species are host to several leaf spots, including (Colletotrichum peckii) (Gloeosporium Trillii) (Heterosporium trillii).

Ulmus species are infected by many fungal leaf spots including (Gnomonia ulmea) and (Cercospora sphaeriaeformis).

Veronica species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria veronicae). The symptoms include small violet to brown spots appear on the upper surface of the leaf and correspondingly yellowish brown on the underside. The spots converge forming a scorched shot-hole appearance and eventually death of the leaf.

Vaccinium ovatum

Vaccinium ovatum is infected by the leaf spot (Rhytisma vaccinii) and (Dothichiza caroliniana).

Vicia species are infected by the leaf spot (Erostrotheca multiformis), which forms greyish spots that enlarge and may defoliate the plant.

Wisteria species are infected by three fungal leaf spots (Phyllostica wisteriae), (Septoria wisteriae) and (Phomatospora wisteriae).

Non-chemical Control

Remove and destroy infected plant material and avoid overhead watering.  When planting select infection resistant varieties. Practice crop rotation and add pot ash to the soil to decrease the plants venerability to the disease. Many species of fungus overwinter in fallen leaves, remove and destroy any litter under the plant.  

Winter Fusarium Leaf Disease in Turf Grasses can be minimised by aerating the soil, reducing thatch and avoid excessive nitrogen in the soil.

Chemical Control

Protective fungicides such as zineb or copper oxychloride should be sprayed at the first sign of infection and cuttings should be sprayed as they start to grow.

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

DISEASE

   NAME

     Phytophthora Rot

     Phytophthora species

Pathogen Name

A number of Phytophthora species cause these diseases but the most important species in Australia is the cinnamon fungus, Phytophthora cinnamomi. This species is exotic to Australia and probably originated from south east Asia; it has probably been present in Australia for close to 200 years. Phytophthora are fungal-like organisms that are related to some protozoa and algae; they are microscopic and cannot be observed by the naked eye.

Description

There are many types of Phytophthora Rot but generally the disease affects the plant by causing a soft rot of the affected plant part. The most common form of the disease is a rotting of the roots that occurs below ground with no visible symptoms of the disease above ground until the disease starts to cause leaf drop.

Symptoms

The disease is initiated below ground in the soil, usually on the feeder roots of a plant. The pathogen grows through the roots killing cells and eventually causing an extensive root decay. This causes the infected plant to lose vigour and the leaves to yellow and die. Entire branches starting from the top then die, quickly during hot weather or linger for months. The infection occurs on the root hairs causing small and large roots to rot.  The symptoms of the disease are often very difficult to differentiate from drought symptoms, mainly because the affected root system prevents the uptake of moisture from the soil. Once the disease has progressed far enough large branches will die causing the typical dieback symptoms.

  

                 

There are a number of other diseases caused by Phytophthora species

Twig Die Back (Phytophthora ilicis) attacks Ilex species causing black leaf spots and black stem cankers.

Phytophthora cactorum is known by several common names depending on which plant is being attacked and they have various symptoms. Plant species are listed below.

Root Rot (Phytophthora richardiae) infects Zantedeschia species causing the leaves to turn yellow, wilt and die. Flowers are deformed if they bloom and the infection can also be seen in the new growth, eventually killing the plant. On inspection the roots show signs of decay.

Stem Rot (Phytophthora cryptogea) infects the roots and stems turning them brown and seeds are also attacked causing decay. It is commonly found on Tagetes erecta and infected plants wilt, collapse and die.

Source and Dispersal

Sporangia     Zoospores    

Image by Dr Brett Summerell

Phytophthora species produce sporangia that contain specialised zoospores that have flagella that allow them to move through the soil moisture small distances. These spores encyst on the root and then penetrate the root. The pathogen also produces chlamydospores, specialised survival spores that allow it to survive in the soil for extended periods of time. The chlamydospores can be transported in soil, even extremely small amounts, allowing the pathogen to be dispersed very easily throughout an area and from one location to another. The zoospores are easily moved in water flowing through soil and so are easily dispersed down slopes. It is not uncommon for the disease to move in fronts down a slope.

                  Chlamydospores, specialised survival spores

Image by Dr Brett Summerell

Favoured Conditions

Phytophthora root rot is favoured by poorly drained soils or in soils that are waterlogged for short periods of time. The disease generally occurs during periods when the temperature is above 16ºC although it has been observed in snow gum country in the Barrington Tops National Park and in southern Tasmania. It also prefers soils that have little organic material.

        

Affected Plants

                  Xanthorrhoea species

Image by Dr Brett Summerell

The host range that is attacked by Phytophthora cinnamomi is enormous and is still not well understood but includes many Australian native plants, Rhododendrons, Acer  and Prunus species, conifers, cabbage tree and strawberries. Some Australian plant families that are quite susceptible include species in the Proteaceae, Epacridaceae and Xanthorrhoea species.

Alphitonia excelsa

Alphitonia excelsa can be infected by Phytophthora cinnamomi causing loss of foliage, death of the upper branches and cankers on the trunk.

Cactus such as Cereus species may be infected with Slimy Collar Rot (Phytophthora cactorum) which forms a soft black area at the base of the plant that is water soaked.

Chamaecyparis species may be infected with the Root Rot (Phytophthora lateralis) that attacks roots, trunk, stems and leaves.

Cornus species are infected by Crown Canker (Phytophthora cactorum) and in this case the tree is partially infected initially with one side producing smaller leaves that turn reddish in late summer. The leaves may also shrivel and die prematurely, during dry periods and small and large branches die. After a couple of seasons the tree becomes completely infected with poor top growth and an inconspicuous canker develops at the base of the trunk. Eventually the tree dies.

Erica species are infected by (Phytophthora cinnamomi). The symptoms include foliage turning greyish towards the top, and then the plant wilts then dies with evidence of infection at the base.

Phytophthora in Eucalyptus species
Image by B. Sonsie



Image by Dr Brett Summerell

Eucalyptus species are infected by Phytophthora cinnamomi causing rapid die back of the tree with blackened trunk loss or upper growth and is a serious problem for certain species such as Eucalyptus diversicolor (Karri).

Euphorbia pulcherrima is susceptible to Root Rot (Phytophthora and Pythium species). Roots become dark and the rot can extend up the stem. The plant is also susceptible to leaf blight resulting from the same fungal disease.

Hedera species are infected by Phytophthora Blight (Phytophthora palmivora). This fungus causes leaf spots, foliage blight and stem rot.

Palms such as Archontophoenix, Caryota, Chamaedorea, Cocos, Dypsis, Howea, Liculia, Linospadix, Livistona, Phoenix, Ptychosperma, Rhapis, Roystonea, Syagrus, Washingtonia and Wodyetia species are also susceptible to Phytophthora Blight forming large irregular areas on the fronds that become dark and rotten and limited by the veins

Lilium species are infected by Foot Rot (Phytophthora cactorum) which attacking the stems just below the soil level causing the plant to topple and if infection occurs as the leaves are emerging the base of the infected leaves which collapse remain attached to the bulb.

Morinda citrifolia is infected by Phytophthora Blight, black flag disease (Phytophthora species) which causes the foliage to turn black and limp. The fruit and stems are also infected causing them to turn brown-black and whither.

                  Morinda citrifolia

Orchids such as Cattleya, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Paphiopedilum, Phalaenopsis and Zygopetalum species are infected by Black Rot (Phytophthora or Pythium species). This causes the leaves, pseudobulbs, rhizomes and roots to form a dark soft rot, normally occurring towards the base of the plant.

Saintpaulia, Dianthus, Gypsophila, Limonium and Anemone species are infected by Root and Crown Rot (Phytophthora nicotianae). This is a fast moving fungus that turns the roots blackish then extends to the crown and petioles causing wet rot of the crown then wilting, eventually killing the plant. When found as Phytophthora Leaf Spot or Blight, angular spots appear with water-soaked margins as in Cordyline and Philodendron species.

Sedum species can be infected by up to three Stem Rot fungi including (Colletotrichum species), (Phytophthora species) and (Pellicularia filamentosa). Commonly occurring in wet soils.

Ulmus and Acer species are also infected by (Phytophthora cactorum) and this is known as Bleeding Canker. This casual disease initially causes cankers in the bark that ooze sap and the sapwood forms reddish lesions with greenish margins. The leaves on affected branches turn yellow, wilt then die and mildly affected trees may survive.

Many species are infected by the Bleeding Canker including Acer platanoides, Acer rubrum, Acer pseudoplatanus, Acer saccharinum, Betula species, Liquidambar styraciflua, Aesculus x carnea, Tilia, Salix and Quercus species.

Non-chemical Control

The most effective control for all Phytophthora diseases is prevention primarily because it is extremely difficult to control Phytophthora diseases after they are established in the plant. As Phytophthora species are most easily transported in infested soil quarantine is an essential component of control of the disease and it is for this reason many areas have hygiene protocols to stop the pathogen being introduced into an area.  It is recommended that bush walkers take care not to introduce the pathogen on their boots into un-infested areas and for this reason it is suggested that walking boots be cleaned and preferably sterilised (with 70% methylated spirits) prior to starting a walk.

Cultural techniques such as cultivating the soil regularly with added animal manure and other organic substrates to ensure there is good drainage will also help to minimise the impact of the disease. The plants can be mulched with straw or other organic material taking care that the base of the trunk is left clear. Avoid over watering the soil and observe hygiene in regards to tools, containers or shoes to reduce spreading the infection.

Potting mixes should be pasteurised for 30min at 60ºC to ensure that they are free of the pathogen. It is also very important to grow pots off the ground to prevent the splash of infested mix or water from an infected plant to clean plants.

.

Avoid damaging the bark particularly at ground level and seal any wounds that occur. If cactus or tree species are infected it is possible to cut out the infected area when first seen in order to contain it. Correct tree surgery techniques are required for large trees.

Chemical Control

There are a number of fungicides that are registered for use in the control of these diseases. The most effective chemical control are based on the use of chemicals containing potassium phosphonate. This chemical effectively enhances the defence systems of the plant and has been shown to be most effective in controlling Phytophthora diseases. It is essential that the chemical be applied when the plants is exporting nutrients to the roots, so this is best in the warmer months. The chemical can be applied as a stem injection or a foliar spray, and in some situations as a soil drench.  There are specialised stem injecting equipment available for stem injections on larger trees.

Image by Dr Brett Summerell

Note

Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.

Amendments by

Dr Brett Summerell
Director Science and Public Programs
Royal Botanic Gardens Trust, Sydney