Fissured or Wrinkled
Fissured bark forms long narrow divisions causing separations. Wrinkled bark generally has smooth folded appearance that may be warty.
Upright-bushy
When a plant has an upright habit with intricate branching (bushy) and may have multiple stems.This shrub to small tree has an upright habit with a greyish trunk and no lignotuber and forms a bushy habit. It has oblong dark green toothed leaves and the golden yellow tube-shaped flowers appear in cylindrical spike from autumn to winter.
Banksia media R.Br. is naturally found in Western Australia at the eastern end of the Stirling Ranges to Israelite Bay growing in heathland or open scrubland. It prefers a in well-drained sandy loam and tolerates limestone or granite soils in a sunny to semi shade open position and is drought and salt tolerant, but frost tender.
The Southern Plains Banksia is a adaptable shrub to small tree that is grown for its flowers and is planted in parks and gardens as a specimen or in shrub borders tolerating some shade. It establishes in 3 to 5 years from seed and will grow in a variety of soil types and has been successfully cultivated in the humid eastern states of Australia. Once established it has a low water requirement (Scale: 1-drop from 3), responding to mulch and an occasional deep watering during dry periods, particularly for young plants.
I.D. 1324
UK hardiness zone H2
Climate zones 15-24, H1
USDA Zone 8-10
Banksia (BANK-see-a) media (me-de-ä)
Etymology
Genus: - Banksia – Named after Sir Joseph Banks (1743 – 1820) who collected the first specimens of the genus during Captain Cook's voyage in 1770.
Species: Latin - media – from ‘medius’ meaning (middle), however it’s referrence to this species is not clear.
Prostrate form
This shrub grows to 300 mm (1 ft) tall with spreading whitish stems with dark green spathulate toothed dark green leaves. It produces upright cylindrical flower heads up to 200 mm (8 in) tall. It is ideal as a ground cover in a small or native garden and is used as a spillover above retaining walls.
Australia (south Western Australia)
Proteaceae (pro-tee-AY-see-ee)
Protea Family
Distribution
This family of dioecious or monoecious trees and shrubs that mainly appear in the southern hemisphere with some found in Central America and Africa. They are abundant in the southern part of Australia and normally grow on poor infertile soils that are tending acidic. Their habitats include shrubland, grassland, rainforests, alpine meadows and tropical lowlands
Diagnostic features
The highly variable leaves are arranged alternate, opposite or whorled and are compound, dissected or lobed or pinnately toothed or simple. The margin is entire or pinnatisect and without stipules. The leaf shape can vary at different stages of growth, juvenile to adult.
The normally bisexual flowers are regular or irregular arranged in racemes or compound inflorescences (cone-like); some are solitary and appear in the leaf axils.
There are normally 4 perianth-segments that are free or united and are arranged in a single whorl, petaloid and valvate in bud joined when young and separating as the tube splits down one side.
The 4 stamens are all fertile and appear opposite the perianth segments and may be reduced to staminodes.
The filaments are partly or wholly attached to the tepals often sessile and the anthers are four chambered opening with longitudinal slits.
The ovary is superior and has one carpel that contains one chamber with one to many ovules.
The hooked style is simple and the stigma is small bulbous (capitate) or maybe bilobed.
The fruit are dehiscent or indehiscent follicle or drupe or achene with few or many winged seeds.
Note:
Some species are used for food, alcoholic drink, herbal remedies and extensively used in ornamental and domestic gardens for their fantastic flowers and foliage. There are 80 genera and 1,700 species.
This plant tolerates between USDA zones 8a to 10a and grows to 10 m (30 ft)
Fahrenheit 10º to 35º F
These temperatures represent the lowest average.
Celsius -12.2º to -1.6º C
Attention
This plant was last revised on the 30/11/2020
The information displayed on this plant is based on research conducted in our horticultural library and from reliable online resources. We also make observations of the plant that we photograph, and all care is taken to ensure the details are correct.
All photographs and data are covered by copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, reference or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part including images and text may be reproduced by any means without written permission. The information presented in the map is only indicative and may contain errors and omissions. All inquiries should be addressed to sales@plantfile.com attention Peter Kirkland.
Simple
The leaf that is not divided.
Cuneate
A leaf that is triangular but rounded with the broadest point at the apex, tapering to the base.
Alternate
Leaves are arranged alternately along the stem.
Serrate
When the leaf margin is sharply indented (like the teeth of a saw).
Tubulate
A flower that forms a tube shape.
Spike
It is an unbranched inflorescence with sessile flowers (a simple raceme).| Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun |
| Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec |
The small tubulate flowers are yellow with a cream style and are arranged in a terminal cylindrical spike up to 200 mm (8 in) long and 70 mm (2 ¾ in) wide. They appear from summer to winter and old flowers are persistent on the plant.
Note:
Generally Banksia flower spikes are composed of hundreds of small individual tubular flowers (florets) that are densely arranged around a single cylindrical axis.
Follicle
A capsular fruit that splits open down one side only and normally contains one seeds. "The Southern Plains Banksia is a adaptable shrub to small tree that is grown for its flowers and is planted in parks and gardens as a specimen or in shrub borders tolerating some shade. It establishes in 3 to 5 years from seed and will grow in a variety of soil types and has been successfully cultivated in the humid eastern states of Australia.
This plant is not commonly cultivated and may be difficult to obtain requiring a specialist nursery.
Note:
This plant is susceptible to Banksia Borer and Leaf Spots.
General pruning information
When pruning reduce only the new growth as cutting old wood is likely to cause dieback. Limbs may be removed back to the collar.
Cultivation
Generally, Banksia species prefer a well drained, sandy soil that is tending acidic but many species from Western Australia grow on acidic top soils with an alkaline subsoil. When the growing Western Australian species outside their native habitat technique of building a garden bed, of acidic soil above a layer of agricultural lime commonly produces better results particularly in raised garden beds or on slopes. During establishment, keep the soil moist but not wet and do not use fertiliser that contains phosphorus.
Fresh seed should be sown in a well-drained media and the kept moist but not wet. Maintain a temperature of 18º to 21º C (64º to 75º F) in an unheated glasshouse or open frame. Germination occurs within 3 weeks to 3 months depending on the species, then prick-out and pot up. Careful not to over water seedlings, as they are prone to damping off and larger plants are difficult to transplant. When removing seed from Banksia fruits it may be necessary to place the fruit in an oven for 60 minutes at a temperature of 120° C. to simulating the effect of a bushfire to opening the valves.
Propagation by seed (General)
Germination
In order for a seed to germinate it must fulfil three conditions.
1. The embryo must be alive (a viable seed).
2. The seed must have no dormancy-inducing physiological, physical or chemical barrier to germination; also the seed must be nondormant.
3. The seed must have the appropriate environmental requirements, water, temperature and oxygen.
The interaction between these requirements and dormancy is complex and may lead to different environmental requirements that avoid the dormancy of a seed.
Sowing seeds in containers
There are two general methods for germinating seeds.
Sow seeds in a flat or germinating bed, through which seedlings are pricked-out then, transplanted into another flat with wider spacing or directly to an individual pot.
2. Sowing seeds by placing them in to flats with the appropriate spacing or into individual pots.
This method is normally carried out with medium to large seeds such as woody plants and plants that are difficult to transplant.
Seedling production normally occurs in a greenhouse / glasshouse, cold frames and on hot beds.
Method of seed sowing
Fine seed is sown in pots or flats that are no deeper than 70 to 80 mm (5 1/8 in). using a sterilised well-drained media (soil). Fill the container to 20 mm (¾ in) from the top and sprinkle sieved peat to 3 mm (1/10 in) depth. Press the media down level and firm with a piece of timber and then thoroughly moisten.
Mix the fine seed with washed sand and then sow thinly on the surface. These may be lightly covered with sand.
Larger seeds may be covered with media or a hole is dibbled and the seed is placed in the media.
Watering methods
For watering you may either mist the containers from above or place the container in tepid water and allow the water to raise through the pot to the surface of the media, then drain away and do not fill to the top of the container.
Place a piece of glass over the pot and store in a protected warm environment (glasshouse).
Seeds germinate best in darkness so shade the containers if in direct sunlight.
After the seedlings have sprouted remove the glass and ease the seedlings into direct light.
When the seedlings are large enough prick them out and transplant into larger containers then place them in a shade house to harden off.
Many seeds have different methods of seed preparation for germination such as nicking or cutting the seed coat to allow water penetration, also placing seeds in hot water and allowing it to cool off.
This is particularly important as it is softening the seed coat.
PEST
NAME
Tip Borer
Various Tip Borer Species
ORDER
Various
Description of the Pest
There is many species of moths which are brown, blackish or white up to 30mm long. Generally the fleshy, greenish to cream coloured larvae grow to 25mm long and are sparsely hairy. The Callistemon Tip Borer is laid by a metallic to blackish moth and the larvae are creamy grubs that have true legs. Some larvae are very active when disturbed such as the fleshy Macadamia Twig Girdler which has darker strips on its body and a dark head.
Dieback Borer Damage
Dieback Borer (Platyomopsis armatula) adult is a grey-brown beetle up to 20mm long with small lumps on its wing covers and long antennae. The 15mm long cream coloured larva tunnel under the bark and feed on the sapwood causing ringbarking. The entrance to the tunnel is covered in frass and plants in the Myrtaceae family such as Eucalyptus species are susceptible.
Elm Twig Girdler (Oberea tripunctata). The adult beetle feeds on twigs causing girdling then deposits eggs during spring. The lava tunnels down the centre of the stem from the girdled point and overwinters in the tunnels. Twigs up to 14mm diameter may snap off at the damaged point and Ulmus species are normally the host.
Mahogany Shoot Borer (Hypsipyla grandella). The adult is a greyish-brown moth with a wingspan up to 45mm with the wings and veins distinctly overlayed in black. It deposits oval eggs that are tiny 0.50mm wide normally deposited in the leaf axil and change colour from white to red in the first 12 hours. In 3 to5 days the larvae emerges and can grow to 25mm long and is brownish white when young and maturing to bluish with a brown head capsule. Swietenia species are damaged as the larvae bore into the new shoots normally during spring or during the rainy season. The shoots and branches wilt then collapse. This is a major economic pest for cultivated trees.
Red Cedar Tip Moth (Hypsipyla robusta) adult is a grey moth with a wing span up to 20mm across and produces fleshy lava with true legs up to 20 mm long that tunnels into the tips of twigs. The tunnels are surrounded by webbing that is littered with pelleted droppings and is normally found on Toona species.
Staghorn Borer larvae grow to 15mm long and are greyish with true legs and the grey adult moth has a wingspan up to 20mm across. It attacks Platycerium species by eating tunnels into the sterile fronds.
Appearance and Distribution of the Pest
They are found mainly on the coast but also inland and are distributed by flying with the assistance of wind.
Life Cycle
These insects have a Holometabolous life cycle, ie. When metamorphosis is observed during the pupal stage.
Eggs are laid in bark on the growing tips. Larvae shelter in tunnels they create in the wood, up to 20mm deep.
Period of Activity
Active throughout the year in warm climates and are commonly found from tropical to sub-tropical and temperate regions.
Damage Caused
Generally the symptoms of tip borers is yellowing and curling of the leaves which wilt then die or shoots become blackened and are noticeable in the tree. Extensive feeding by a number of larvae causes dieback but normally, this is a minor pest.
The larvae emerge from their tunnels at night, to feed on the bark around the entrance holes. Entrance holes are covered by a layer of chewed wood fragments ("frass") and silk webbing. Most damage appears on twigs and new growth.
Typical larvae
The Callistemon Tip Borer tunnels down the centre of the twigs causing then to die or break off and the Macadamia Twig Girdler (Neodrepta luteotactella) form tunnels in sapwood that are covered in fine webbing that is dotted in brown excreted pellets. This is the same appearance as the Banksia Web-covering Borer (Xylorycta strigata) larva makes, as it tunnels down the centre of shoots.
Susceptible Plants
Many native and ornamental plants are susceptible to tip borers such as Callistemon, Melaleuca, Banksia, Hakea, Macadamia and Stenocarpus species
Eucalyptus, Callistemon, Corymbia, Leptospermum and Melaleuca species are attacked by the Dieback Borer (Platyomopsis armatula). Twigs and small branches are attacked and the larvae causes ring bark. Affected branches break easily in high winds.
Sambucus, Yucca and Delphinium species are attacked the Common Stalk Borer (Papaipema nebris) which attacks the stems causing the plant to wilt and topple over.
Cultural Control
Larvae may be destroyed after exposure by pulling away the covering pad of frass, or by pushing a length of wire into the tunnel. Damaged branches may be removed, or tunnels plugged. Infested perennials or annuals should be removed and destroyed.
Biological Control
No effective biological control.
Chemical Control
Spray with Carbaryl (including the trunks or stems) if necessary while the insects are active.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
PEST
NAME
Jewel Beetles
Various Jewel Beetle Species
ORDER
Coleoptera
FAMILY
Buprestidae
Description of the Pest
There are many species of Jewel beetles and generally have flat and elongated bodies with metallic, iridescent-patterned shells in orange red or yellow. The plump larvae are cream-coloured legless grubs, shaped like a cobra head with a large body segment behind the head.
Appearance and Distribution of the Pest
They are common throughout Australia particularly in the drier regions.
Life Cycle
This insect has a Holometabolous life cycle, ie. When metamorphosis is observed during the pupal stage.
Eggs are laid in cracks in the bark of the host, upon which the mature larvae pupates.
Period of Activity
Most active from spring through summer.
Damage Caused
The larvae feed beneath the bark, producing oval (in cross-sectioned) tunnels with much sawdust ("frass") around the entrance. The larvae burrow into the cambium layer. Stressed or damaged plants are more susceptible to infestation and may display branch die-back; occasionally the larvae may ring-bark the trunk.
Susceptible Plants
Many plants are attacked especially in the Myrtaceae family such as the Eucalyptus, Leptospermum and Melaleuca species. Allocasuarina are also attacked.
Banksia species may be attacked by the Banksia Borer (Cyria imperialis).
Cupressus species are attacked by the Cypress Jewel Beetle (Diadoxus erythrurus).
Cultural Control
Remove damaged branches or repair using arboriculture techniques. Improve the culture of the plant.
Biological Control
No effective biological controls.
Chemical Control
No practical chemical control of the larvae is available. Tree injection is unsuccessful because the larvae tunnel into the woody part of the plant.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
PEST
NAME
Longicorns, Long Horn Beetles
Various Longicorn Species
ORDER
Coleoptera
FAMILY
Cerambycidae
Description of the Pest
This is a large group of beetles with over 1,000 species that commonly have two long and conspicuous antennae and square shoulders. They may be large or small, dull or brightly coloured beetles. The creamy-white fleshy lava has reduced legs and taper from the thorax. Both the Lava and adult beetle has chewing mouth parts.
These insects have a Holometabolous life cycle, ie. When metamorphosis is observed during the pupal stage.
Appearance of the Pest
The adults lay eggs in wounds or in damaged areas by active borer larvae. The Larvae bore large circular tunnels in the sapwood for many months, which become packed with frass. The damage is evident with cracked bark, surrounded by sawdust and the appearance of gum oozing out of the wound.
Some species ringbark twigs or trunks and the larva pupate in the plant.
The adult emerges from 'emergence holes' and may chew bark or foliage but generally the damage is insignificant.
Auger Beetle (Bostrycnopsis jesuita) is another insect that produces a tunnel boring, plump white larva. The adult grows to 18mm long and its thorax forms an outgrowth that extends over its head making the beetle to always look down.
Pittosporum Longicorn (Strongylurus thoracicus) is brown with white spots on either side of the thorax with long antenna and is up to 30mm long. It lays creamy legless lava that feed on the sapwood of small branches in Pittosporum species by forming rounded tunnels.
Twig Girdling Longicorn (Platyomopsis humeralis) is a dark coloured beetle with anatine the same length as its body up to 20mm long. The wing covers may have stripes or dots and the mandibles are strong arranged at right angle to the body. It feeds on bark forming rings around branches or small twigs.
Period of Activity
The adults are active from spring to summer and are found throughout Australia from tropical to temperate regions.
Susceptible Plants
Many ornamental and Australian native trees, shrubs or climbers, including Eucalyptus, Pittosporum, Ficus and Vitis species. The larva also attacks recently fallen timber or existing dead plants.
Banksia species are attacked by the Banksia Longicorn (Paroplites australis) which is a reddish brown beetle to 50mm long with equal length antennae and produces a yellowish fleshy (grub-like) lava, that is legless and tapers towards its tail. It tunnels into the hardwood and can cause severe damage.
Eucalyptus are attacked by the Giant Longicorn (Eurynassa odewahni) which is a large beetle up to 80mm long with equally long antennae and produces a plump legless white (grub-like) lava, that are ribbed and tapers towards its tail.
Grevillea robusta, Melia azedarach and Brachychiton populneus are attacked by the Auger Beetle larva.
Damage Caused
The larva eats away the sapwood and may tunnel deep into the timber creating open wounds on the trunks and in some cases ring barking the plant. Certain species graze only on the bark and associated wood such as The Twig Girdling Longicorn and the result of the damage is not evident well after the insect has moved on. Branches that have been attacked are weakened and snap off during high winds.
The Auger Beetle eats circular holes through the sap wood and heart wood reducing the structural strength of the tree.
Cultural Control
Stressed plants are commonly attacked and action should be taken to invigorate the plant with additional watering and fertilising. It may be possible to kill the larvae with a piece of wire and areas that have been damaged should be treated with tree surgery techniques to mend the wound.
Biological Control
Beetles and larva are eaten by birds and lizards but are not an effective control.
Chemical Control
There is no effective chemical control.
DISEASE
NAME
Phytophthora Rot
Phytophthora species
Pathogen Name
A number of Phytophthora species cause these diseases but the most important species in Australia is the cinnamon fungus, Phytophthora cinnamomi. This species is exotic to Australia and probably originated from south east Asia; it has probably been present in Australia for close to 200 years. Phytophthora are fungal-like organisms that are related to some protozoa and algae; they are microscopic and cannot be observed by the naked eye.
Description
There are many types of Phytophthora Rot but generally the disease affects the plant by causing a soft rot of the affected plant part. The most common form of the disease is a rotting of the roots that occurs below ground with no visible symptoms of the disease above ground until the disease starts to cause leaf drop.
Symptoms
The disease is initiated below ground in the soil, usually on the feeder roots of a plant. The pathogen grows through the roots killing cells and eventually causing an extensive root decay. This causes the infected plant to lose vigour and the leaves to yellow and die. Entire branches starting from the top then die, quickly during hot weather or linger for months. The infection occurs on the root hairs causing small and large roots to rot. The symptoms of the disease are often very difficult to differentiate from drought symptoms, mainly because the affected root system prevents the uptake of moisture from the soil. Once the disease has progressed far enough large branches will die causing the typical dieback symptoms.
There are a number of other diseases caused by Phytophthora species
Twig Die Back (Phytophthora ilicis) attacks Ilex species causing black leaf spots and black stem cankers.
Phytophthora cactorum is known by several common names depending on which plant is being attacked and they have various symptoms. Plant species are listed below.
Root Rot (Phytophthora richardiae) infects Zantedeschia species causing the leaves to turn yellow, wilt and die. Flowers are deformed if they bloom and the infection can also be seen in the new growth, eventually killing the plant. On inspection the roots show signs of decay.
Stem Rot (Phytophthora cryptogea) infects the roots and stems turning them brown and seeds are also attacked causing decay. It is commonly found on Tagetes erecta and infected plants wilt, collapse and die.
Source and Dispersal
Sporangia
Zoospores
Image by Dr Brett Summerell
Phytophthora species produce sporangia that contain specialised zoospores that have flagella that allow them to move through the soil moisture small distances. These spores encyst on the root and then penetrate the root. The pathogen also produces chlamydospores, specialised survival spores that allow it to survive in the soil for extended periods of time. The chlamydospores can be transported in soil, even extremely small amounts, allowing the pathogen to be dispersed very easily throughout an area and from one location to another. The zoospores are easily moved in water flowing through soil and so are easily dispersed down slopes. It is not uncommon for the disease to move in fronts down a slope.
Chlamydospores, specialised survival spores
Image by Dr Brett Summerell
Favoured Conditions
Phytophthora root rot is favoured by poorly drained soils or in soils that are waterlogged for short periods of time. The disease generally occurs during periods when the temperature is above 16ºC although it has been observed in snow gum country in the Barrington Tops National Park and in southern Tasmania. It also prefers soils that have little organic material.
Affected Plants
Xanthorrhoea species
Image by Dr Brett Summerell
The host range that is attacked by Phytophthora cinnamomi is enormous and is still not well understood but includes many Australian native plants, Rhododendrons, Acer and Prunus species, conifers, cabbage tree and strawberries. Some Australian plant families that are quite susceptible include species in the Proteaceae, Epacridaceae and Xanthorrhoea species.
Alphitonia excelsa
Alphitonia excelsa can be infected by Phytophthora cinnamomi causing loss of foliage, death of the upper branches and cankers on the trunk.
Cactus such as Cereus species may be infected with Slimy Collar Rot (Phytophthora cactorum) which forms a soft black area at the base of the plant that is water soaked.
Chamaecyparis species may be infected with the Root Rot (Phytophthora lateralis) that attacks roots, trunk, stems and leaves.
Cornus species are infected by Crown Canker (Phytophthora cactorum) and in this case the tree is partially infected initially with one side producing smaller leaves that turn reddish in late summer. The leaves may also shrivel and die prematurely, during dry periods and small and large branches die. After a couple of seasons the tree becomes completely infected with poor top growth and an inconspicuous canker develops at the base of the trunk. Eventually the tree dies.
Erica species are infected by (Phytophthora cinnamomi). The symptoms include foliage turning greyish towards the top, and then the plant wilts then dies with evidence of infection at the base.
Phytophthora in Eucalyptus species
Image by B. Sonsie
Image by Dr Brett Summerell
Eucalyptus species are infected by Phytophthora cinnamomi causing rapid die back of the tree with blackened trunk loss or upper growth and is a serious problem for certain species such as Eucalyptus diversicolor (Karri).
Euphorbia pulcherrima is susceptible to Root Rot (Phytophthora and Pythium species). Roots become dark and the rot can extend up the stem. The plant is also susceptible to leaf blight resulting from the same fungal disease.
Hedera species are infected by Phytophthora Blight (Phytophthora palmivora). This fungus causes leaf spots, foliage blight and stem rot.
Palms such as Archontophoenix, Caryota, Chamaedorea, Cocos, Dypsis, Howea, Liculia, Linospadix, Livistona, Phoenix, Ptychosperma, Rhapis, Roystonea, Syagrus, Washingtonia and Wodyetia species are also susceptible to Phytophthora Blight forming large irregular areas on the fronds that become dark and rotten and limited by the veins
Lilium species are infected by Foot Rot (Phytophthora cactorum) which attacking the stems just below the soil level causing the plant to topple and if infection occurs as the leaves are emerging the base of the infected leaves which collapse remain attached to the bulb.
Morinda citrifolia is infected by Phytophthora Blight, black flag disease (Phytophthora species) which causes the foliage to turn black and limp. The fruit and stems are also infected causing them to turn brown-black and whither.
Morinda citrifolia
Orchids such as Cattleya, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Paphiopedilum, Phalaenopsis and Zygopetalum species are infected by Black Rot (Phytophthora or Pythium species). This causes the leaves, pseudobulbs, rhizomes and roots to form a dark soft rot, normally occurring towards the base of the plant.
Saintpaulia, Dianthus, Gypsophila, Limonium and Anemone species are infected by Root and Crown Rot (Phytophthora nicotianae). This is a fast moving fungus that turns the roots blackish then extends to the crown and petioles causing wet rot of the crown then wilting, eventually killing the plant. When found as Phytophthora Leaf Spot or Blight, angular spots appear with water-soaked margins as in Cordyline and Philodendron species.
Sedum species can be infected by up to three Stem Rot fungi including (Colletotrichum species), (Phytophthora species) and (Pellicularia filamentosa). Commonly occurring in wet soils.
Ulmus and Acer species are also infected by (Phytophthora cactorum) and this is known as Bleeding Canker. This casual disease initially causes cankers in the bark that ooze sap and the sapwood forms reddish lesions with greenish margins. The leaves on affected branches turn yellow, wilt then die and mildly affected trees may survive.
Many species are infected by the Bleeding Canker including Acer platanoides, Acer rubrum, Acer pseudoplatanus, Acer saccharinum, Betula species, Liquidambar styraciflua, Aesculus x carnea, Tilia, Salix and Quercus species.
Non-chemical Control
The most effective control for all Phytophthora diseases is prevention primarily because it is extremely difficult to control Phytophthora diseases after they are established in the plant. As Phytophthora species are most easily transported in infested soil quarantine is an essential component of control of the disease and it is for this reason many areas have hygiene protocols to stop the pathogen being introduced into an area. It is recommended that bush walkers take care not to introduce the pathogen on their boots into un-infested areas and for this reason it is suggested that walking boots be cleaned and preferably sterilised (with 70% methylated spirits) prior to starting a walk.
Cultural techniques such as cultivating the soil regularly with added animal manure and other organic substrates to ensure there is good drainage will also help to minimise the impact of the disease. The plants can be mulched with straw or other organic material taking care that the base of the trunk is left clear. Avoid over watering the soil and observe hygiene in regards to tools, containers or shoes to reduce spreading the infection.
Potting mixes should be pasteurised for 30min at 60ºC to ensure that they are free of the pathogen. It is also very important to grow pots off the ground to prevent the splash of infested mix or water from an infected plant to clean plants.
.
Avoid damaging the bark particularly at ground level and seal any wounds that occur. If cactus or tree species are infected it is possible to cut out the infected area when first seen in order to contain it. Correct tree surgery techniques are required for large trees.
Chemical Control
There are a number of fungicides that are registered for use in the control of these diseases. The most effective chemical control are based on the use of chemicals containing potassium phosphonate. This chemical effectively enhances the defence systems of the plant and has been shown to be most effective in controlling Phytophthora diseases. It is essential that the chemical be applied when the plants is exporting nutrients to the roots, so this is best in the warmer months. The chemical can be applied as a stem injection or a foliar spray, and in some situations as a soil drench. There are specialised stem injecting equipment available for stem injections on larger trees.
Image by Dr Brett Summerell
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
Amendments by
Dr Brett Summerell
Director Science and Public Programs
Royal Botanic Gardens Trust, Sydney
DISEASE
NAME
Leaf Spot (General)
Various Leaf Spot Species
Description
There is a wide variety of fungal leaf spots that infect perennials, shrub and trees. Some are specific to the host while others can affect a range of plants.
Symptoms
Generally light brown to purplish or blackish spots appear on the leaf and form concentric rings of fruiting bodies. The spots may leave holes, perforating the leaf or expand with pale green to yellowish margins and when the holes merge the leaf normally dies. There are many different types of leaf spot, some are discussed below.
Alocasia species
Alternaria Leaf Spot (Alternaria nelumbii) forms a small reddish brown spots that are boarded in light green, and as they develop in size the leaf curls and dies from the margin inwards. Normally occurs on Nelumbo species (water lilies).
Helminthosporium Disease
Helminthosporium Disease (Bipolris species), (Drechslera species) and (Exserophilum species) are responsible for several leaf spots that occur on all Turf Grass species. Generally they form black or white spots that may be faded and produce masses of spores in the thatch during late summer, under humid conditions. The life cycle is short and when conditions are favourable spores are splashed onto the foliage from the thatch, causing wide spread infection. Cynodon dactylon (common couch) is most susceptible and found in bowling or golf greens where it is a serious problem.
Banana Leaf Spot
Banana Leaf Spot (Mycosphaerella musicola) is found on many species of banana causing pale yellow streaks on the young leaves to turn brown with dark spots. The leaf then becomes dried, brown and dead commencing from the margins, eventually the leaf dies. Control requires removal of infected foliage or the spraying of a fungicide and fungicides should not be used during the fruiting period.
Lophostemon confertus (Brush Box)
Leaf Spot on Brush Box (Elsinoe species). This is a casual fungus that attacks the epidermal layer of the leaf, forming circular spots that are up to 25mm across and are often restricted by the main vein. These spots are a dull yellowish brown but can also have purplish patterns. A leaf may have more than one spot develop on its surface and normally appears on scattered leaves throughout the tree. This doesn't affect the vigour of Lophostemon confertus.
Palm Leaf-scab (Graphiola phoeicis) appears as yellow spots and develop into scabs or warts that are outwards hard and dark but with a soft centre with powdery yellowish brown spores. The infected leaves eventually die.
Palm Leaf Spot, Chamaedorea elegans
Palm Leaf Spot (Pestaloptiopsis species) appears as a small spot with a dark centre on the leaves and affects palms that are growing in shaded humid positions and normally control is not required, though infected fronds should be removed.
Source and Dispersal
Infection source is other contaminated plants and the spores are spread by wind or by splashing water. The fruiting bodies are black spots that appear on the damaged tissue releasing spores.
Favoured Conditions
This fungus prefers a warm humid environment and leafy plants with soft new growth, particularly if they are crowded.
Affected Plants
There are many ornamental and native plants that are hosts to a wide range of fungal leaf spots. Some specific ones are listed below. Plants such as Cornus or Paeonia species are infected by a large variety of leaf spots, while other plants attract a specific leaf spot.
Generally a healthy plant can tolerate fungal leaf spot attack, though it may make the plant look unsightly. In trees and shrubs it is difficult to control and generally not necessary, but in perennials and annuals control may be necessary in order to save the plant.
Acalypha and Arctotis species are infected by up to three leaf spots including (Cercospora acalyphae) and (Ramularia acalyphae) that rarely require control.
Acer species are infected by Purple Eye (Phyllosticta minima) which forms spots with brownish centres and purplish margins causing the death of the leaves.
Acer species are also infected by Tar Spot (Rhytisma acerinum) which forms round black spots that have yellow margins. Not normally seen on cultivated trees, but seen in forests.
Adiantum, Asplenium, Blechnum, Cyathea, Davallia, Nephrolepis, Platycerium, Polypodium and Pteris species are infected by the leaf spot (Pseudocercopora species) which forms circular brown spots on the fronds and heavy infection can defoliate a plant.
Aesculus species are occasionally infected with the leaf spot (Septoria hippocastani) which forms small brown spots.
Agave species are susceptible to the leaf spot (Coniothyrium concentricum), which appear as greyish spots up to 20mm (1in) across with concentric rings and black fruiting bodies. Affected leaves are destroyed as the infection spreads.
Albizia julibrissin is susceptible to the fungal leaf spot (gloeosporium aletridis), which does not normally require control.
Amelanchler, Chaenomeles, Crataegus and Rhaphiolepis species Mespilus germanica are infected by the leaf spot (Fabraea maculata) which may cause considerable damage during wet periods.
Aquilegia species can be infected by three types of Leaf Spot including (Ascochyta aquilegiae), (Cercospora aquilegiae) and (Septoria aquilegiae), normally appearing during humid conditions forming spots on the leaves.
Arbutus species are infected by two leaf spots (Septoria Unedonis) which produces small brown spots on the leaves and (Elsinoe mattirolianum).
Arctostaphylos manzanita is infected by the leave spot (Cryptostictis arbuti) which damages leaves but is not normally detrimental to the shrub.
Aspidistra species are infected by the leaf spot (Colletotrichum omnivorum) causing whitish spots on the leaves and petiole.
Aster species are infected by many leaf spots including (Alternaria species), (Cercosporella cana), ( Ovularia asteris) and (Septoria asteris).
Aucuba species are infected by several leaf spots, usually as a secondary infection after aphid attack. These include (Phyllosticta aucubae) and (Phyllostica aucubae).
Azalea
Azalea (Rhododendron species) are susceptible to Leaf Scorch (Septoria azalea). This fungal disease forms reddish- brown spots which expand and engulf the leaf, with fruiting bodies appearing in the centre. Infected leaves die, then fall and the branchlets wilt. This problem is more serious during wet periods and may require control using a fungicide.
Banksia robur
Banksia species are infected by several leaf spots causing chlorotic areas that have brown centres and is not normally a major problem for the plant.
Betula species may be infected by the Leaf Spots (Gloeosporium betularum) that forms brown spots with darker margins and (Cylindrosporium betulae) that also forms brown spots with faded indefinite margins.
Bougainvillea species are infected by the leaf spot (Cercosporidium bougainvilleae) which forms rounded spots with dark margins that yellowish ting. Infected leaves die and fall from the plant.
Calendula species are infected by the Leaf Spot (Cercospora calendulae) which rapidly infects the plant spotting the leaves and killing the plant.
Callicarpa species may be infected by the leaf spot (Atractilina callicarpae) forming irregular brownish spot or (Cercospora callicarpae) which can defoliate the plant in subtropical climates.
Campsis species may be infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Phyllosticta tecomae), (Septoria tecomae) and (Cercospora duplicata).
Carpinus species are infected by the leaf spots (Gloeosporium robergei), (Gnomoniella fimbriata) and (Septoria carpinea), all are minor infections not normally requiring control.
Carya species are infected by several leaf spots including (Gnomonia caryae) that infects leaves with irregular reddish spots on the upper surface with corresponding brown spore producing spots on the underside. It also has a secondary spore release that occurs on the dead leaves where it over winters. Other leaf spots include (monochaetia desmazierii) and (Marssonina juglandis).
Ceanothus species are susceptible to the leaf spot (Cercospora ceanothi) and (Phyllosticta ceanothi) both are of minor importance not requiring control.
Celtis species are infected by many leaf spots including (Cercosporella celtidis), (Cylindrosporium celtidis), (Phleospora celtidis) and (Septogloeum celtidis).
Chrysanthemums species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria species) which forms yellow spots appear toward the edge of the leaves; these become enlarged brownish patches with yellow margins. Damaged areas may converge and in severe attacks and the leaves may fall prematurely or flower production is reduced.
Clematis species are infected by the fungal disease (Ascochyta clematidina) which may cause stem rot or leaf spots that are water soaked areas with reddish margins. The infection spreads from the leaves to the stem causing wilting and eventually girdling the stem killing the plant. There are many fungal leaf spots that infect this plant including (Cercospora rubigo) and (Septoria clematidis)
Dracaena deremensis
Cordyline and Dracaena species may be infected by the leaf spot (Phyllosticta maculicola) which forms small brownish spots that have yellowish margins and has black fruiting bodies that forms coils of spores. These plants are also susceptible to other leaf spots such as (Glomerella cincta) and (Phyllosticta dracaaaenae). Keep foliage dry to avoid infection.
Cynodon dactylon, Pennisetum clandestinum and many other Turf Grasses are susceptible to Helminthosporium Disease.
Daphne species are infected by the leaf spot (Gloeosporium mezerei) and (Marssonina daphnes) both of which form thickish brown spots that are seen on both sides of the leaves. Infected leaves turn yellowish before dieing.
Dendranthema species are infected by many leaf spots such as (Septoria chrysanthemi) which first forms yellowish spots up to 25mm (1in) across that become black. Infected leaves die prematurely and persist on the plant.
Dianthus species may be infected by the leaf spot (Septoria dianthi). It forms light brown rounded spots that have a purplish border. The scattered spots on the lower leaves can also be found on the stems and the spores are dispersed by water from the tiny black fruiting bodies.
Dieffenbachia species are infected by several leaf spot fungi including (Cephalosporium species) and (Myrothecium species).
Eucalyptus species
Eucalyptus species are infected by many fungal leaf spots such as (Mycosphaeralla species), (Hendersonia species) and (Monocheatia monochaeta). Generally leaf spots appear on the juvenile or new leaves causing brownish spots that enlarge and may have a purplish halo around the margin. Mature adult leaves are not normally infected and the trees rarely require control measures.
Fern species are infected by the leaf spot, (Alternaria polypodii). This fungus appears as brown circular or oblong spots that congregate along the margins of the pinnae causing the fronds to turn brown and die. It is spread by wind currents from plant to plant and control methods include removing infected fronds and maintaining a drier atmosphere.
Ficus species are infected by various fungal leaf spot including (Pseudocercospora species). Generally the fungal attack forms circular or irregular dark coloured spots on the leaves eventually causing them to fall prematurely.
Ficus elastica is susceptible to many fungal leaf spots including (Alternaria species), (Leptostromella elastica) and (Phyllosticta roberti).
Strawberry
Fragaria x ananassa (Strawberry) is infected by the fungal leaf spot (Mycospharella fragariae). The mature leaf is initially infected with well defined brown spots that that turn light grey with red-purplish margins. As the spots merge they form large brown blotches and the leaf turns yellow then dies. This fungal attack normally occurs on plants in poor health and can be a serious problem early in the season seriously damaging stock.
Fraxinus species
Fraxinus species are infected by the leaf spot (Gloeosporium aridum) giving the leaf a scorched appearance as large blotches appear from the margin or apex and turn brown with a papery texture. It is more prevalent during rainy periods and infected leaves fall prematurely. Collect and depose of fallen leaves otherwise control is not normally required.
Fuchsia species may be infected by the leaf spot (Septoria species) or ( Cercospora species), both form spots with dead centres and dark margins.
Gladiolus species are infected by Hard Rot or Leaf Spot (Septoria gladioli). On the corms reddish brown circular water soaked spots become large and sunken. These areas dry out and form obvious margins. The leaves may also have these symptoms but is not commonly seen.
Hemerocallis species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cercospora hemerocallis) and (Heterosporium iridis). These may be in the form of black spots or brownish spots that converge killing the leaf. Infected leaves should be removed and burnt.
Hibiscus species
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Hibiscus syriacus and Hibiscus tiliaceus are susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including (Ascochyta abelmoschi), (Cerospora kellermanii) and (Phyllosticta hibiscina). All cause spotting or blotching of the leaf surface; remove and destroy infected parts.
Hydrangea species are infected by four fungal species including (Ascochyta hydrangeae), (Phyllosticta hydrangeae) and (Septoria hydrangeae).
Iris species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Alternaria iridicola) and (Macosphaerella species).
Iris species are also infected by the leaf spot (Didymellina macrospore) that forms greyish spots with brown water soaked borders and coalesce on the upper part of the leaf. This casual organism commonly occurs after flowering killing the leaves but will not infect the bulbs. The bulbs become weak over several seasons due to the decreased foliage.
There is also a Bacterial Leaf Spot (Bacterium tardicrescens) that is commonly mistaken as a fungal problem causing translucent spots that coalesce and involve the entire leaf. Normally found on Iris species.
Laburnum anagyroides is infected by the Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta cytisii). The leaf forms light grey spots with no definite margin and mature to brown. The black fruiting bodies appear as dots in the centre of the spot.
Leucanthemum species are infected by the leaf spot (Cerocspora chrysanthemi) and (Septoria leucanthemi).
Magnolia species are susceptible to many species including (Alternaria tenuis), (Mycosphaerella milleri) and (Phyllosticta species). Leaves generally turn brown from the apex or margins turning brown or spots appear on the leaf surface and leaves become yellow before withering and dieing. Normally the make the tree look poorly but have little effect on its growth. Control is not normally required.
Nerium oleander is susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including (Cercospora nerella), (Cercospora repens), (Gloesporium species) and (Phyllosticta nerii). Infected leaves should be removed but generally control is not required.
Nyssa sylvatica is infected by the leaf spot (Mycosphaerella nyssaecola) forming irregular purplish blotches.
Orchids such as Cattleya, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Paphiopedilum, Phalaenopsis and Zygopetalum species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cerospora, Colletotrichum and Phyllosticta species). Normally forming dark or dead, circular or irregular areas on the leaves.
Palms such as Syagrus, Howea, Phoenix, Roystonea and Washingtonia species are infected by Leaf-scab (Graphiola phoeicis).
Palms such as Archontophoenix, Caryota, Chamaedorea, Cocos, Dypsis, Howea, Liculia, Linospadix, Livistona, Phoenix, Ptychosperma, Rhapis, Roystonea, Syagrus, Washingtonia and Wodyetia species are susceptible to several fungal leaf spots including;
(Bipolaris spp.), (Cylindrocladium spp.), (Colletotrichum spp.) and (Pestalotiopsis spp.).
Generally the circular leaf spots are brown and may have a yellow halo such as Palm Ring Spot (Bipolaris incurvata). They vary in size from small to large depending on the species. When a plant is healthy it recovers from attack, but heavy infections can defoliate, causing the collapse of the plant.
Palms are also infected by the Brachybasidium Leaf Spot (Brachybasidium pinangae). This fungus forms angular leaf lesions that produce fruiting bodies on the underside and is commonly found on Archontophoenix species.
Archontophoenix cunninghamiana
Passiflora species are infected with many types of leaf spot such as (Alternaria passiflorae).
Phoenix species are susceptible to False Smut (Graphiola phoenicis). This fungus forms yellow leaf spots that become hard with a raised with a blackish scab, which produces masses of powdery spores that are thread-like.
Pittosporum species
Pittosporum species are susceptible to the leaf spots (Alternaria tenuissima), (Phyllostica species) and (Cercospora pittospori). Circular or angular dark spots appear on the leaves and are surrounded by necrotic areas that are yellowish. Generally removal of infected leaves is adequate control.
Poa species and other cool season grasses are infected by Winter Fusarium Leaf Disease (Fusarium species), which causes small pale spots that are water soaked to appear on the leaves that turn red-brown. Infected leaves become bleached then wither and die, but the infection will not affect the crown or roots of the plant. It can be identified by pink, cotton-like mycelium and the plant prefers cold wet weather.
Populus species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Ciborinia bifrons, Ciborinia confundens), and (Mycosphaerella populicola).
Prunus species are infected by several leaf spots including (Cercospora circumscissa and Septoria ravenelii).
Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir is infected by the Leaf Cast (Rhabdocline pseudotsugae) Symptoms include the needles becoming yellowish at the apex and extending down the needle and spreading to others during moist spring weather turning them brown. Brownish scorched areas are noticeable on the tree from a distance. Control; is not normally required for mature trees but nursery stock may require spraying with a copper based fungicide.
Psidium guajava (Guava) is infected by (Glomerella cingulate). This fungus courses spots to appear on leaves and mummifies and blackens immature fruit or rots mature fruit. This fungus can devastate a guava crop.
Quercus species are infected by several types of leaf spot including (Cylindrosporium microspilum) and (Marssonina martini). These attacks tend top take place later in the season and normally not detrimental to the tree.
Rhododendron species are infected by a large variety of fungal leaf spots including (Cercospora rhododendri) and (lophodermium melaleucum)
Salix species are infected by several fungal leaf spots including (Ascochyta salicis) and (Septogloeum salicinum).
Senecio species are infected by the fungal leaf spot (Alternaria cinerariae) and (Cercospora species), forming dark rounded or angular spots.
Spiraea species are attacked by the fungal leaf spot (Cylindrosporium filipendulae).
Stenotaphrum secundatum (Buffalo) turf grass is susceptible to Grey Leaf Spot (Pyricularia grisea) in domestic and commercial situations devastating lawns. This fungal disease infects the stems and leaves with small brown lesions that enlarge rapidly forming grey-brown spots that have darker borders or surrounded by yellow chlorotic areas. This infection is commonly found on newly laid turf but will also infect established lawns. It is most prevalent during warm humid periods in soil with a high nitrogen level.
Syringa species are attacked by up to six species of leaf spot including (Cercospora lilacis) and (Phyllostica species).
Syzygium species
Syzygium species are infected by fungal leaf spots but normally control is not required.
Tagetes species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria tageticola), which starts at the base and moves progressively up through the plant, covering the leaves in grey to black spots.
Trillium species are host to several leaf spots, including (Colletotrichum peckii) (Gloeosporium Trillii) (Heterosporium trillii).
Ulmus species are infected by many fungal leaf spots including (Gnomonia ulmea) and (Cercospora sphaeriaeformis).
Veronica species are infected by the leaf spot (Septoria veronicae). The symptoms include small violet to brown spots appear on the upper surface of the leaf and correspondingly yellowish brown on the underside. The spots converge forming a scorched shot-hole appearance and eventually death of the leaf.
Vaccinium ovatum
Vaccinium ovatum is infected by the leaf spot (Rhytisma vaccinii) and (Dothichiza caroliniana).
Vicia species are infected by the leaf spot (Erostrotheca multiformis), which forms greyish spots that enlarge and may defoliate the plant.
Wisteria species are infected by three fungal leaf spots (Phyllostica wisteriae), (Septoria wisteriae) and (Phomatospora wisteriae).
Non-chemical Control
Remove and destroy infected plant material and avoid overhead watering. When planting select infection resistant varieties. Practice crop rotation and add pot ash to the soil to decrease the plants venerability to the disease. Many species of fungus overwinter in fallen leaves, remove and destroy any litter under the plant.
Winter Fusarium Leaf Disease in Turf Grasses can be minimised by aerating the soil, reducing thatch and avoid excessive nitrogen in the soil.
Chemical Control
Protective fungicides such as zineb or copper oxychloride should be sprayed at the first sign of infection and cuttings should be sprayed as they start to grow.
Note
Always read the label for registration details and direction of use prior to application of any chemicals.
Average Lowest Temperature : -3º C 27º F
USDA : 8, 9, 10
This USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) hardiness zone chart can be used to indicate a plant’s ability to withstand average minimum temperatures. However, other factors such as soil type, pH, and moisture, drainage, humidity and exposure to sun and wind will also have a direct effect on your plant’s survival. Use this chart only as a guide, always keep the other factors in mind when deciding where, when and what to plant.
A plant's individual USDA zone can be found in the Plant Overview.
Region of origin
Australia (south Western Australia)
Climate Description
Warm Temperate
This zone has the majority of rain during winter in the west and summer in the east with high humidity. Summer temperatures may peak at 40ºC (104ºF).
Frost and drought mainly occur inland and coastal wind is normally accompanied with rain.
Plant growth
Wide range of native and exotic plants grow well.
| Dictionary | Growth Habit |
| Leaf Type | Botanic Flower Description |
| Leaf Shape | Flower Inflorescence |
| Leaf Arrangement | Fruit Type |
| Leaf Margin | Bark Type |
| Leaf Apex And Bases | Flower Description |
